| Preface |
|
xv | |
|
|
|
xvii | |
|
Preservation of Quality Through Packaging |
|
|
1 | (14) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 | (3) |
|
Physical and Chemical Interactions Between Plastics and Food or Pharmaceuticals |
|
|
4 | (1) |
|
The Organization of this Book |
|
|
5 | (10) |
|
|
|
12 | (3) |
|
Characteristics of Plastic Materials |
|
|
15 | (48) |
|
|
|
|
|
Classification, Manufacture, and Processing Aids |
|
|
15 | (11) |
|
Classification and Manufacture of Plastics |
|
|
16 | (1) |
|
Raw Materials and Polymerization Processes |
|
|
17 | (1) |
|
|
|
18 | (1) |
|
Condensation Polymerization |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
Synthesis of Copolymers, Block, and Graft Copolymers |
|
|
19 | (1) |
|
|
|
20 | (2) |
|
|
|
22 | (1) |
|
|
|
23 | (1) |
|
Initiators and Crosslinkers |
|
|
24 | (1) |
|
|
|
25 | (1) |
|
Structure and States of Aggregation in Polymers |
|
|
26 | (6) |
|
|
|
26 | (3) |
|
|
|
29 | (3) |
|
The Most Important Plastics |
|
|
32 | (31) |
|
|
|
32 | (1) |
|
|
|
32 | (2) |
|
|
|
34 | (2) |
|
|
|
36 | (1) |
|
|
|
36 | (1) |
|
Poly-4-methylpentene-1 (P4MP1) |
|
|
36 | (1) |
|
|
|
36 | (1) |
|
Cyclic Olefin Copolymers (COC) |
|
|
37 | (1) |
|
|
|
38 | (1) |
|
|
|
39 | (2) |
|
|
|
41 | (1) |
|
|
|
41 | (1) |
|
|
|
42 | (1) |
|
|
|
43 | (1) |
|
|
|
44 | (1) |
|
Polyoxymethylene or Acetal Resin |
|
|
45 | (1) |
|
Polyphenylene Ether (PPE) |
|
|
45 | (1) |
|
|
|
45 | (1) |
|
Fluoride Containing Polymers |
|
|
46 | (1) |
|
|
|
46 | (1) |
|
|
|
46 | (1) |
|
|
|
47 | (1) |
|
Unsaturated Polyester (UP) |
|
|
47 | (1) |
|
|
|
48 | (1) |
|
Natural and Synthetic Rubber |
|
|
49 | (2) |
|
|
|
51 | (3) |
|
Plastics Based on Natural Polymers Regenerated Cellulose |
|
|
54 | (1) |
|
|
|
54 | (1) |
|
|
|
55 | (1) |
|
|
|
56 | (1) |
|
|
|
57 | (1) |
|
|
|
57 | (1) |
|
Temperature-Resistant Coatings |
|
|
58 | (1) |
|
Printing Inks and Varnishes |
|
|
59 | (1) |
|
|
|
60 | (3) |
|
|
|
63 | (26) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
63 | (1) |
|
|
|
64 | (1) |
|
|
|
65 | (1) |
|
|
|
65 | (1) |
|
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
Fillers and Reinforcing Agents |
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
|
|
67 | (1) |
|
|
|
67 | (1) |
|
|
|
68 | (1) |
|
|
|
68 | (2) |
|
|
|
70 | (8) |
|
|
|
71 | (1) |
|
|
|
72 | (1) |
|
|
|
72 | (1) |
|
Chain-Breaking Antioxidants |
|
|
73 | (1) |
|
Hydroperoxide Deactivating Antioxidants |
|
|
74 | (1) |
|
|
|
75 | (1) |
|
|
|
75 | (1) |
|
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
Light Screening Pigments and UV Absorbers |
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
|
|
77 | (1) |
|
Transformation Products of Plastic Stabilizers |
|
|
78 | (8) |
|
Transformation Products from Phenolic Antioxidants and UV Absorbers |
|
|
79 | (4) |
|
Transformation Products from Hydroperoxide Deactivating Antioxidants |
|
|
83 | (1) |
|
Transformation Products from Hindered Amine Stabilizers |
|
|
84 | (1) |
|
Transformation Products from Heat Stabilizers for PVC |
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
|
|
86 | (3) |
|
|
|
86 | (3) |
|
|
|
89 | (34) |
|
|
|
|
|
Experimental Determination of Polymer/Liquid Partition Coefficients |
|
|
89 | (1) |
|
Thermodynamics of Partition Coefficients |
|
|
90 | (9) |
|
Equilibrium Between Different Phases in Ideal Solutions |
|
|
91 | (1) |
|
Partitioning in Ideal Solutions: Nernst's Law |
|
|
92 | (1) |
|
Equilibrium Between Different Phases in Nonideal Solutions |
|
|
93 | (1) |
|
Partition Coefficients for Nonideal Solutions |
|
|
94 | (2) |
|
Partition Coefficients for Systems with Polymers |
|
|
96 | (2) |
|
Relationship Between Partition Coefficients and Solubility Coefficients |
|
|
98 | (1) |
|
Estimation of Partition Coefficients Between Polymers and Liquids |
|
|
99 | (24) |
|
Additive Molecular Properties |
|
|
99 | (3) |
|
Estimation of Partition Coefficients Using QSAR and QSPR |
|
|
102 | (1) |
|
Group-Contribution Thermodynamic Polymer Partition Coefficient Estimation Methods |
|
|
102 | (2) |
|
Estimation of Partition Coefficients Using RST |
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
Estimation of Partition Coefficients Using UNIFAC |
|
|
104 | (4) |
|
Estimation of Partition Coefficients Using Group-Contribution Flory Equation-of-State |
|
|
108 | (1) |
|
Estimation of Partition Coefficients Using Elbro Free Volume Model |
|
|
108 | (1) |
|
Comparison of Thermodynamic Group-Contribution Partition Coefficient Estimation Methods |
|
|
108 | (1) |
|
Vapor Pressure Index Partition Coefficient Estimation Method |
|
|
109 | (3) |
|
Examples of Vapor Pressure Index Values |
|
|
112 | (6) |
|
|
|
118 | (5) |
|
Models for Diffusion in Polymers |
|
|
123 | (40) |
|
|
|
Diffusion in Polymers - The Classical Approach |
|
|
125 | (15) |
|
Diffusion in Rubbery Polymers |
|
|
126 | (1) |
|
|
|
126 | (3) |
|
The Molecular Model of Pace and Datyner |
|
|
129 | (2) |
|
|
|
131 | (2) |
|
The Free-Volume Model of Vrentas and Duda |
|
|
133 | (2) |
|
Diffusion in Glassy Polymers |
|
|
135 | (5) |
|
Diffusion in Polymers - The Computational Approach |
|
|
140 | (14) |
|
|
|
142 | (8) |
|
The Transition-State Approach |
|
|
150 | (4) |
|
|
|
154 | (9) |
|
|
|
158 | (5) |
|
A Uniform Model for Prediction of Diffusion Coefficients with Emphasis on Plastic Materials |
|
|
163 | (32) |
|
|
|
|
|
163 | (3) |
|
|
|
166 | (2) |
|
|
|
166 | (2) |
|
Prerequisites for Diffusion Coefficients |
|
|
168 | (10) |
|
Critical Temperatures of n-Alkanes |
|
|
168 | (2) |
|
Melting Temperatures of n-Alkanes |
|
|
170 | (3) |
|
Melting Temperatures of Atom Clusters |
|
|
173 | (2) |
|
Critical Compression Factor |
|
|
175 | (1) |
|
The Entropy of Evaporation |
|
|
175 | (1) |
|
The Reference Temperature and the Reference Molar Volume |
|
|
176 | (2) |
|
The Diffusion Coefficient |
|
|
178 | (17) |
|
|
|
178 | (3) |
|
Diffusion in the Critical State |
|
|
181 | (1) |
|
|
|
181 | (1) |
|
Self-diffusion Coefficients in Metals |
|
|
181 | (2) |
|
Self-Diffusion Coefficients in Semiconductors and Salts |
|
|
183 | (1) |
|
Self-Diffusion Coefficients in n-Alkanes |
|
|
184 | (1) |
|
|
|
184 | (1) |
|
Self-Diffusion Coefficients in Metals |
|
|
184 | (1) |
|
Self-Diffusion Coefficients in n-Alkanes |
|
|
185 | (3) |
|
Diffusion in Plastic Materials |
|
|
188 | (1) |
|
Diffusion Coefficients of n-Alkanes in Polyethylene |
|
|
188 | (3) |
|
Diffusion Coefficients of Additives in Polymers |
|
|
191 | (2) |
|
|
|
193 | (2) |
|
Transport Equations and Their Solutions |
|
|
195 | (52) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
195 | (6) |
|
|
|
196 | (1) |
|
The Differential Equations of Diffusion |
|
|
197 | (3) |
|
The General Transport Equations |
|
|
200 | (1) |
|
Solutions of the Diffusion Equation |
|
|
201 | (29) |
|
|
|
202 | (1) |
|
|
|
202 | (1) |
|
Diffusion in a Single-Phase Homogeneous System |
|
|
203 | (6) |
|
Dimensionless Parameters and the Proportionality of Mass Transfer to the Square Root of Time |
|
|
209 | (3) |
|
Comparison of Different Solutions for the Same Special Cases |
|
|
212 | (1) |
|
Diffusion in Multiphase Systems |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
Diffusion in Polymer/Liquid Systems |
|
|
213 | (11) |
|
Influence of Diffusion in Food |
|
|
224 | (1) |
|
|
|
225 | (2) |
|
Permeation Through Homogeneous Materials |
|
|
227 | (1) |
|
Permeation Through a Laminate |
|
|
228 | (1) |
|
Concentration Dependence of the Diffusion Coefficient |
|
|
228 | (1) |
|
Diffusion and Chemical Reaction |
|
|
229 | (1) |
|
Numerical Solutions of the Diffusion Equation |
|
|
230 | (17) |
|
|
|
230 | (1) |
|
Finite-Difference Solution by the Explicit Method |
|
|
231 | (5) |
|
von Neumann Stability Analysis |
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
The Crank-Nicholson Implicit Method |
|
|
237 | (3) |
|
Spatially Variable Diffusion Coefficient |
|
|
240 | (1) |
|
|
|
241 | (2) |
|
One-Dimensional Diffusion in Cylindrical and Spherical Geometry |
|
|
243 | (2) |
|
Multidimensional Diffusion |
|
|
245 | (1) |
|
|
|
246 | (1) |
|
Solution of the Diffusion Equation for Multilayer Packaging |
|
|
247 | (16) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
247 | (1) |
|
Methods for Solving the Diffusion Problem in a Multilayer (ML) Packaging |
|
|
248 | (3) |
|
Solving the Diffusion Equation for a Multilayer Packaging in Contact with a Foodstuff |
|
|
251 | (5) |
|
Development of a User-Friendly Software for the Estimation of Migration from Multilayer Packaging |
|
|
256 | (7) |
|
|
|
261 | (2) |
|
User-Friendly Software for Migration Estimations |
|
|
263 | (34) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
263 | (3) |
|
MIGRATEST©Lite - A User-Friendly Software for Migration Estimations |
|
|
266 | (31) |
|
Basic Features of MIGRATEST©Lite and Input Data Menus |
|
|
266 | (10) |
|
Estimation of Migration with MIGRATEST©TLite |
|
|
276 | (2) |
|
Output Information Delivered by MIGRATEST©Lite |
|
|
278 | (1) |
|
Case Examples Computed with MIGRATEST©Lite |
|
|
278 | (3) |
|
Migration Estimations with the MIGRATEST©EXP Software |
|
|
281 | (6) |
|
Case Examples Computed with MIGRATEST©EXP |
|
|
287 | (9) |
|
|
|
296 | (1) |
|
Permeation of Cases and Condensable Substances Through Monolayer and Multilayer Structures |
|
|
297 | (52) |
|
Horst-Christian Langowski |
|
|
Introduction: Barrier Function of Polymer-Based Packaging |
|
|
297 | (5) |
|
Permeation Through Polymeric Materials |
|
|
302 | (5) |
|
Substance Transport Through Monolayer Polymer Films |
|
|
303 | (2) |
|
Substance Transport Through Multilayer Polymer Films (Laminates) |
|
|
305 | (2) |
|
Units for Different Parameters |
|
|
307 | (1) |
|
Substance Transport Through Single and Multilayer Polymer Substrates Combined with One Inorganic Barrier Layer |
|
|
307 | (13) |
|
|
|
307 | (4) |
|
Simplification: Barrier Improvement Factor |
|
|
311 | (2) |
|
Multilayer Polymer Substrates Combined with One Inorganic Layer |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
Polymer Substrates Combined with an Inorganic Barrier Layer and Other Polymer Layers on Top of the Inorganic Layer |
|
|
314 | (2) |
|
Temperature Behavior of the Structures Shown Above |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Substance Transport Through Thin Polymer Layers Having Inorganic Layers on Both Sides |
|
|
317 | (3) |
|
Substance Transport Through Polymers Filled with Particles |
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
Experimental Findings: Polymer Films and One Inorganic Barrier Layer |
|
|
321 | (11) |
|
Structures and Defects in Inorganic Barrier Layers on Polymer Substrates |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
Comparison of Model Calculations and Experimental Results for Combinations of Polymer Films and One Inorganic Barrier Layer |
|
|
324 | (3) |
|
Apparent Additional Transport Mechanisms for Water Vapor |
|
|
327 | (5) |
|
Properties of Systems with at least One Inorganic Layer Embedded Between to Polymer Layers or Films |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
Experimental Findings: Combinations of Polymer Films and More Than One Inorganic Barrier Layer |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
Experimental Findings: Polymers Filled with Platelet-Shaped Particles |
|
|
333 | (5) |
|
Experimental Findings: Permeation of Flavors Through Mono- and Multilayer Films and Combinations with Inorganic Barrier Layers |
|
|
338 | (4) |
|
|
|
342 | (7) |
|
|
|
342 | (7) |
|
Migration of Plastic Constituents |
|
|
349 | (68) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
349 | (5) |
|
Migration, Extraction, and Adsorption |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
|
|
350 | (1) |
|
Legal Migration Limits and Exposure |
|
|
350 | (2) |
|
Parameters Determining Migration |
|
|
352 | (2) |
|
Indirect Migration Assessment |
|
|
354 | (7) |
|
Worst-Case (Total Mass Transfer) Assumption |
|
|
355 | (2) |
|
General Considerations: Taking Solubility and/or Low Diffusivity of Certain Plastics into Account |
|
|
357 | (2) |
|
Migration Assessment of Mono- and Multilayers by Application of Complex Mathematical Models |
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
|
|
359 | (2) |
|
|
|
361 | (11) |
|
Direct Migration Measurement in Conventional and Alternative Simulants |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
Accelerated Migration Tests: Alternative Migration Test |
|
|
362 | (3) |
|
Choice of Appropriate Test Conditions |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
|
|
365 | (2) |
|
Time-Temperature Conditions |
|
|
367 | (2) |
|
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
|
|
370 | (2) |
|
Analysis of Migration Solutions |
|
|
372 | (6) |
|
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
Aqueous and Alternative Volatile Simulants |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
Modified Polyphenylene Oxide (Tenax®) |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
Vinyl Chloride EU Directives |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
Methods of Analysis in Petitions to the European Commission |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
Methods in Foods (Foodmigrosure Project) |
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
Development of Methods, Validation, and Verification |
|
|
378 | (16) |
|
Establishing (Juristically) Valid Performance of Methods |
|
|
378 | (2) |
|
A Practical Guide for Developing and Prevalidation of Analytical Methods |
|
|
380 | (7) |
|
Validation Requirements for EU Food Contact Petitions and US FDA Food Contact Notifications |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
Determination of the Detection Limit |
|
|
387 | (2) |
|
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
Use of the Precision Data from Fully Validated Methods |
|
|
390 | (4) |
|
|
|
394 | (6) |
|
|
|
394 | (1) |
|
Reaction with Food/Simulant Constituents |
|
|
395 | (2) |
|
Migrants in Reactive Processes (e.g., Primary Aromatic Amines from Adhesives) |
|
|
397 | (3) |
|
Migration into Food Simulants in Comparison to Foods |
|
|
400 | (7) |
|
Consideration of Non Intentionally Added Substances (NIAS) and Other not Regulated Migrants |
|
|
407 | (10) |
|
|
|
409 | (8) |
|
US FDA Food Contact Materials Regulations |
|
|
417 | (24) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
417 | (1) |
|
|
|
417 | (5) |
|
Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) |
|
|
417 | (4) |
|
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
Premarket Safety Assessment |
|
|
422 | (15) |
|
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
|
|
423 | (3) |
|
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
|
|
427 | (4) |
|
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
Environmental Information |
|
|
432 | (1) |
|
Claim of categorical exclusion |
|
|
432 | (2) |
|
Environmental Assessment (EA) |
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
Polymeric Food Packaging Materials |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
|
|
438 | (3) |
|
|
|
438 | (3) |
|
Community Legislation on Materials and Articles Intended to Come into Contact with Foodstuffs |
|
|
441 | (24) |
|
|
|
|
|
441 | (1) |
|
|
|
442 | (18) |
|
Directives/Regulations Applicable to all Materials and Articles |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
Framework Directives/Regulation |
|
|
442 | (3) |
|
Regulation on Good Manufacturing Practice |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
Directives Applicable to One Category of Materials and Articles |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
Directive on Regenerated Cellulose Film |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
Directive on Plastics Materials |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
EU List of Authorized Substances |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
Restricted Use of Authorized Substances (OML, SML, QM, and QMA) |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
Authorization of New Substances |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
Directives on the System of Checking Migration |
|
|
452 | (2) |
|
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
Fat (Consumption) Reduction Factors |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Declaration of Compliance |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
Specific Rules for Infants and Young Children |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Special Restrictions for Certain Phthalates now Authorized at EU Level |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Simulant for Milk and Milk Products |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Other Complementary Community Initiatives |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Directives Concerning Individual or Groups of Substances |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Directives on Vinyl Chloride |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Directive on MEG and DEG in Regenerated Cellulose Film |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Directive on Nitrosamines in Rubber Teats and Soothers |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Regulation on the Restriction of Use of Certain Epoxy Derivatives |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Directive on the Suspension of the Use of Azodicarbonamide as Blowing Agent in Plastics |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
Regulation on Some Plasticizers in Gaskets in Lids |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
National Law and European Mutual Recognition |
|
|
460 | (2) |
|
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
National Legislations and Council of Europe Resolutions |
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
|
|
462 | (3) |
|
Packaging Related Off-Flavors in Foods |
|
|
465 | (34) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
|
466 | (2) |
|
Identification of Off-Flavor Compounds |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
Physical Chemical Parameters Determining Off-Flavors |
|
|
469 | (5) |
|
Derivation of Threshold Concentrations of Sensory-Active Compounds |
|
|
474 | (25) |
|
|
|
494 | (5) |
|
Possibilities and Limitations of Migration Modeling |
|
|
499 | (22) |
|
|
|
|
|
Correlation of Diffusion Coefficients with Plastic Properties |
|
|
501 | (10) |
|
The Partition Coefficient |
|
|
511 | (10) |
|
|
|
521 | (2) |
|
|
|
523 | (84) |
|
|
|
525 | (32) |
|
|
|
|
|
552 | (5) |
|
|
|
557 | (34) |
|
|
|
589 | (2) |
|
|
|
591 | (16) |
|
A Selection of Additives Used in Many Plastic Materials |
|
|
591 | (16) |
| Index |
|
607 | |