Preface |
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xxi | |
Online Resources |
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xxv | |
1 Nervous Systems |
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xxviii | |
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1.1 The Cells of the Nervous System Are the Neurons and Glia |
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5 | (6) |
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5 | (1) |
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6 | (2) |
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1.1.3 Gray versus White Matter |
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8 | (3) |
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1.2 The Nervous System Consists of Peripheral and Central Divisions |
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11 | (11) |
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1.2.1 Peripheral Nervous System |
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12 | (4) |
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1.2.2 Central Nervous System |
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16 | (6) |
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1.3 An Information Highway To The Brain: The Spinal Cord |
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22 | (4) |
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1.4 Critical Functions in the Basement of the Brain: The Brainstem |
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26 | (4) |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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1.5 A Gateway to the Cortex and a Center for Motivation: The Diencephalon |
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30 | (4) |
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31 | (1) |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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1.6 Voluntary Movement, Emotion, and Memory: The Basal Ganglia and the Limbic System |
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34 | (3) |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (2) |
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1.7 Sensory, Motor, and Higher Cognitive Processes: The Cerebral Cortex |
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37 | (3) |
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40 | (1) |
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41 | (1) |
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41 | (2) |
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43 | (1) |
2 How Neurons Work |
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44 | (40) |
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2.1 To Drop a Hot Cup, or Not |
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46 | (5) |
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2.2 Neurons Are Activated by the Entry of Sodium Ions (Na+) |
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51 | (11) |
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2.2.1 Two Factors Cause Sodium to Pass through Ion Channels |
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51 | (3) |
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2.2.2 Depolarization of the Neuron |
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54 | (1) |
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2.2.3 Reaching the Firing Threshold |
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55 | (1) |
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2.2.4 The Neuronal Signal (Action Potential) Sweeps across the Axon |
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56 | (1) |
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2.2.5 A Close-up Look at the Action Potential |
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57 | (2) |
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2.2.6 Myelinated Axons Permit Saltatory Conduction |
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59 | (3) |
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2.3 Neurotransmitters Are Released into the Synapse and Bind to Receptors |
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62 | (3) |
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2.3.1 Neurotransmitters Are Released |
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62 | (1) |
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2.3.2 Neurotransmitters Bind to Receptors |
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63 | (1) |
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2.3.3 Neurotransmitters Are Cleared from the Synapse |
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64 | (1) |
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2.4 Neurotransmitters Excite, Inhibit, or Modulate the Activity of Neurons |
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65 | (7) |
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2.4.1 Neuronal Excitation: EPSPs |
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66 | (1) |
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2.4.2 Neuronal Inhibition: IPSPs |
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67 | (2) |
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2.4.3 Spatial and Temporal Summation |
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69 | (1) |
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2.4.4 Graded Potentials Get Smaller as They Spread along the Membrane |
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69 | (3) |
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2.5 There Are Various Forms of Neurotransmission |
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72 | (2) |
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2.5.1 Ionotropic and Metabotropic Receptors |
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72 | (1) |
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2.5.2 Neural Communication without Neurotransmitters |
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73 | (1) |
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2.6 Behavior Depends upon the Activity of Neurons: Revisited |
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74 | (2) |
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2.7 Neurons Can Make Recurrent, Divergent, and Convergent Connections |
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76 | (2) |
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2.8 Psychoactive Drugs Affect Neurotransmission |
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78 | (2) |
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80 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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82 | (2) |
3 Sensory Systems |
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84 | (60) |
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3.1 Sensory Systems in General |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (36) |
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3.2.1 The Eye Bends Light to Produce a Focused Image on the Retina |
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88 | (2) |
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3.2.2 Photoreceptors: The Light-Sensitive Neurons of the Retina |
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90 | (8) |
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3.2.3 From Light to Retinal Output |
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98 | (8) |
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3.2.4 Neurons at Early Stages of the Visual System Respond to Simple Stimuli |
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106 | (10) |
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3.2.5 The Dorsal and Ventral Streams |
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116 | (1) |
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3.2.6 The Visual Cortex Contains Columns of Neurons with Similar Receptive Fields |
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117 | (2) |
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119 | (4) |
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3.3 Other Sensory Systems |
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123 | (16) |
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123 | (6) |
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129 | (3) |
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3.3.3 Smell (Olfaction) and Taste (Gustation) |
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132 | (7) |
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139 | (1) |
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139 | (1) |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (3) |
4 Movement |
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144 | (46) |
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4.1 From Spinal Cord to Muscle |
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148 | (10) |
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4.1.1 Motor Neurons Communicate with Muscles |
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148 | (2) |
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4.1.2 Muscle Contractions Move Body Parts |
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150 | (6) |
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4.1.3 The Spinal Cord Controls Reflexes and Some Repetitive Body Movements |
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156 | (2) |
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158 | (9) |
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4.2.1 The Primary Motor Cortex Controls Movement of the Opposite Side of the Body |
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160 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Body Parts Are Represented in a Map within the Motor Cortex |
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160 | (4) |
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4.2.3 The Parietal Cortex Sends Tactile Feedback to the Primary Motor Cortex |
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164 | (1) |
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4.2.4 The Primary Motor Cortex Contributes to Integrated Behaviors |
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165 | (2) |
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167 | (6) |
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4.3.1 The Supplementary Motor Area Is Active during the Conscious Desire to Move |
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167 | (4) |
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4.3.2 Movement Preparation Is Associated with Premotor Activity |
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171 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Visuomotor Neurons Prepare the Hand to Grasp Objects |
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172 | (1) |
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4.3.4 Mirror Neurons Are a Bridge from Observation to Imitation |
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172 | (1) |
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173 | (3) |
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4.4.1 The Prefrontal Cortex Keeps Movement Goals in Mind |
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173 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Behavioral Control Sometimes Requires Withholding Actions until a Later Time |
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174 | (1) |
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4.4.3 Frontal Eye Fields Locate Objects Relevant to the Current Goal |
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175 | (1) |
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176 | (4) |
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4.5.1 The Basal Ganglia Form a Looped Circuit |
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177 | (1) |
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4.5.2 Dopamine Influences the Initiation of Behavior |
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177 | (2) |
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4.5.3 Some Areas of the Striatum Are Necessary for Automatized Behavior |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (5) |
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4.6.1 The Cerebellum Predicts Movement Consequences |
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181 | (1) |
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4.6.2 Cerebellar Damage Impairs the Coordination and Accuracy of Movements |
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182 | (1) |
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4.6.3 The Anatomy of the Cerebellum Allows Fine-Tuning of Movements before They Occur |
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183 | (2) |
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185 | (1) |
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185 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (3) |
5 Sleep-Waking and Circadian Rhythms |
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190 | (40) |
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192 | (5) |
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5.1.1 If You Lived in a Cave, Cut Off from the Outside World, Would You Still Wake Up Every Morning at the Same Time? |
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193 | (2) |
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5.1.2 The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Is the Brain's Master Clock |
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195 | (1) |
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5.1.3 Two Factors Influence the Sleep-Wake Cycle |
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196 | (1) |
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197 | (5) |
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5.3 Sleep Varies with Age and Species |
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202 | (5) |
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5.3.1 The Amount of Time Spent Sleeping Changes over the Lifespan |
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203 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Sleep Patterns Vary across Species |
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204 | (3) |
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207 | (3) |
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210 | (8) |
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5.5.1 Activation of the Thalamus and Cerebral Cortex Is Key to the Waking State |
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210 | (2) |
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5.5.2 Neurons within the Hypothalamus Trigger Non-REM Sleep |
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212 | (2) |
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5.5.3 REM Sleep Depends upon Activation of Neurons in the Brainstem |
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214 | (4) |
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5.6 Diseases and Disruptions |
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218 | (5) |
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5.6.1 Insomnia, the Most Common Sleep Disorder, Is an Inability to Sleep |
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218 | (2) |
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5.6.2 Narcolepsy Involves Intense Sleepiness during the Daytime |
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220 | (2) |
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5.6.3 Sleep Apnea Deprives the Sleeper of Oxygen |
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222 | (1) |
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5.6.4 In REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD), the Sleeper Can Act Out His Dreams |
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223 | (1) |
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223 | (2) |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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227 | (3) |
6 Hunger |
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230 | (42) |
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6.1 Complex Physiological Processes Keep Neurobiological Variables in Safe Ranges |
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232 | (3) |
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6.2 Digestion of Food Provides Nutrients and Energy for Use and Storage |
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235 | (5) |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (3) |
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6.3 Does Homeostasis Completely Determine When We Eat? |
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240 | (1) |
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6.4 Physiological, Emotional, and Cognitive Signals Tell the Brain to Start or Stop Eating |
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241 | (4) |
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6.4.1 Physiological Signals |
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241 | (3) |
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6.4.2 Emotional and Cognitive Signals |
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244 | (1) |
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6.5 The Hypothalamus Is a Key Brain Structure for Hunger and Satiety |
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245 | (5) |
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6.6 Various Factors Influence Body Weight |
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250 | (1) |
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6.7 Obesity Is a Modern Epidemic with Many Causes and Few Easy Cures |
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251 | (9) |
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6.7.1 How Much Body Weight Is Too Much? |
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251 | (3) |
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6.7.2 Industrialization and Technology Have Contributed to Obesity |
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254 | (1) |
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6.7.3 Genetic, Neurobiological, and Interpersonal Factors May Contribute to Obesity |
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255 | (1) |
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6.7.4 Treatments for Obesity |
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256 | (4) |
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6.8 The Three Main Types of Eating Disorders Are Anorexia, Bulimia, and Binge-Eating Disorder |
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260 | (6) |
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260 | (3) |
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263 | (2) |
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6.8.3 Binge-Eating Disorder |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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267 | (1) |
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267 | (5) |
7 Sex |
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272 | (34) |
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7.1 Hormones Influence Sexual Development and Sexual Behavior |
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274 | (5) |
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7.2 Sexual Differentiation Begins with the SRY Gene |
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279 | (1) |
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7.3 Hormones Released by the Testes Masculinize the Sex Organs |
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280 | (3) |
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7.4 Are Male and Female Brains Different? |
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283 | (3) |
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7.5 Hormones Guide the Development of Sexual Behavior in Animals |
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286 | (2) |
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7.6 Early Hormone Exposure and Genetics Affect Gender Identity and Human Sexual Behavior |
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288 | (7) |
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7.6.1 Gender Identity and Gender-Related Behavior |
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288 | (2) |
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7.6.2 Transsexual and Transgender Individuals |
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290 | (2) |
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292 | (3) |
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7.7 Sexually Arousing Stimuli Activate the Brain |
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295 | (2) |
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7.8 Sex Hormones and Other Neurochemicals Can Strongly Affect Sexual Behavior |
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297 | (3) |
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300 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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302 | (4) |
8 Brain Development and Plasticity |
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306 | (42) |
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308 | (14) |
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8.1.1 The Nervous Systems of Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, and Fish All Develop According to a Similar Plan |
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308 | (2) |
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8.1.2 Neurons Pass through Five Developmental Phases |
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310 | (7) |
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8.1.3 Neurotrophic Factors Allow Neurons to Survive and Grow |
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317 | (1) |
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8.1.4 Behavioral Abilities Advance as the Nervous System Develops |
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318 | (2) |
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8.1.5 The Brain Produces New Neurons Even in Adulthood |
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320 | (2) |
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322 | (22) |
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8.2.1 Increased Use of a Brain Region Results in Its Expansion |
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322 | (3) |
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8.2.2 Brain Areas Adapt to Changes in Their Inputs |
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325 | (7) |
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8.2.3 What Gets Plasticity Going? |
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332 | (3) |
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8.2.4 The Central Nervous System Is Susceptible to Injury |
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335 | (2) |
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8.2.5 Biological Processes and Technologies Offer Hope for CNS Recovery |
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337 | (7) |
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344 | (1) |
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344 | (1) |
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344 | (1) |
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345 | (3) |
9 Long-Term Learning and Memory |
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348 | (50) |
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9.1 Memory of Experiences |
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351 | (18) |
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9.1.1 Damage to the Medial Temporal Lobes Produces Amnesia |
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352 | (2) |
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9.1.2 Old, Recent, and New Memories |
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354 | (2) |
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9.1.3 The Hippocampus and Cortex Interact during Memory Recall |
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356 | (4) |
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9.1.4 Information Travels through the Hippocampus |
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360 | (2) |
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9.1.5 Can the Activity of Individual Neurons Reveal What Someone Is Recalling? |
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362 | (1) |
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9.1.6 Memory of Familiar Places |
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363 | (3) |
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9.1.7 Memory of Familiar People and Things |
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366 | (3) |
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9.2 Memories Rewire the Brain |
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369 | (9) |
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9.2.1 Synaptic Plasticity and Learning |
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369 | (6) |
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9.2.2 A Hypothetical Example |
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375 | (2) |
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9.2.3 Learning and the Birth of New Neurons |
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377 | (1) |
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378 | (5) |
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9.3.1 Neuronal Assemblies in the Motor Cortex Grow Larger |
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379 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Automaticity of Well-Learned Behaviors |
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380 | (1) |
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9.3.4 The Cerebellum and Refinement of Skilled Movements |
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381 | (2) |
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9.4 Digging Deeper into the Neurobiology of Memory |
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383 | (10) |
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383 | (5) |
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9.4.2 Eyeblink Conditioning |
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388 | (2) |
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9.4.3 Learning in Aplysia: Eric and the Snail |
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390 | (3) |
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393 | (1) |
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393 | (1) |
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393 | (1) |
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394 | (4) |
10 Attention and Working Memory |
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398 | (40) |
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400 | (20) |
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10.1.1 Norepinephrine Neurons Play a Key Role in Alertness |
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400 | (3) |
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10.1.2 Attention Can Be Stimulus-Driven or Goal-Directed |
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403 | (10) |
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10.1.3 Frontal and Parietal Damage Can Lead to Attentional Neglect |
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413 | (1) |
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10.1.4 Frontal Lobe Executive Control Is Needed to Inhibit Attention to Distractors |
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414 | (3) |
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10.1.5 What Causes the Attentional Problems in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder? |
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417 | (1) |
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10.1.6 Can Attentional Ability Be Improved with Neuroscience-Based Training? |
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418 | (2) |
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420 | (13) |
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10.2.1 How Much Information Can You Hold in Working Memory? |
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421 | (1) |
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10.2.2 An Influential Model Described Three Key Components of Working Memory |
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421 | (1) |
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10.2.3 Neurons Become Active as Monkeys Hold Information in Working Memory |
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422 | (5) |
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10.2.4 Why Does Working Memory Sometimes Fail? |
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427 | (2) |
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10.2.5 How Do Neurons Stay Active during the Delay Period of a Working Memory Task? |
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429 | (1) |
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10.2.6 Do Perception and Working Memory Activate Common Brain Areas? |
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430 | (2) |
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10.2.7 Future Questions about Working Memory |
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432 | (1) |
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433 | (1) |
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433 | (1) |
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434 | (1) |
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435 | (3) |
11 Reward, Reinforcement, and Addiction |
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438 | (46) |
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11.1 Reward-Related Learning |
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440 | (5) |
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11.2 Dopamine and Brain Stimulation Reward |
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445 | (3) |
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11.2.1 Electrical Brain Stimulation |
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445 | (1) |
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11.2.2 Anatomy of the Dopamine Pathways |
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446 | (2) |
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11.2.3 Is Dopamine Responsible for the Reinforcing Effects of Brain Stimulation Reward? |
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448 | (11) |
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11.3 The Neurobiology of Natural Reward |
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452 | (1) |
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11.3.1 Does Dopamine Play a Role in Food Reward? |
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452 | (1) |
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11.3.2 Dopamine Responses to Primary and Conditioned Food Reward |
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453 | (3) |
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11.3.3 Brain Responses to Financial, Social, and Sexual Reward |
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456 | (3) |
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11.4 Drug Reward and Addiction |
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459 | (14) |
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11.4.1 Cocaine and Amphetamine |
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460 | (5) |
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465 | (2) |
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11.4.3 Heroin, Morphine, and Oxycodone |
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467 | (1) |
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467 | (1) |
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468 | (1) |
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11.4.6 Withdrawal and Craving |
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469 | (1) |
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470 | (3) |
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11.5 Reward Learning and Plasticity |
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473 | (5) |
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478 | (1) |
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479 | (1) |
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479 | (1) |
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480 | (4) |
12 Stress, Fear, and Anxiety |
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484 | (42) |
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486 | (15) |
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12.1.1 Stress Activates Fight or Flight Responses of the Sympathetic Nervous System |
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487 | (1) |
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12.1.2 Stress Releases Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Hormones |
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488 | (2) |
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12.1.3 The Brain Responds to Threatening Situations and Controls Stress Responses |
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490 | (3) |
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12.1.4 Stress Affects the Immune System |
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493 | (3) |
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12.1.5 Why Do Some People Recover from Stress So Quickly? |
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496 | (1) |
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12.1.6 Early Life Experiences Influence How an Individual Responds to Stress in Adulthood |
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497 | (4) |
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501 | (18) |
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12.2.1 The Amygdala Responds to Threatening Stimuli |
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502 | (1) |
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12.2.2 The Woman without an Amygdala |
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503 | (2) |
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12.2.3 Learning Not to Be Afraid |
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505 | (1) |
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12.2.4 The Medial Prefrontal Cortex Inhibits Fear Responses |
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506 | (3) |
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12.2.5 Anxiety Disorders Are Associated with Abnormal Activation of Fear Circuitry |
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509 | (3) |
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12.2.6 Psychological and Drug Therapies Can Reduce Excessive Anxiety |
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512 | (3) |
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12.2.7 Glucocorticoid Stress Hormones Elevate Anxiety |
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515 | (4) |
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519 | (1) |
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519 | (1) |
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520 | (1) |
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521 | (5) |
13 Neuropathology in Neurology and Psychiatry |
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526 | (52) |
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13.1 Major Depressive Disorder |
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528 | (11) |
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13.1.1 Major Depression Includes Feelings of Hopelessness, Worthlessness, and a Risk of Suicide |
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529 | (1) |
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13.1.2 Stress, Genes, and Their Interaction May Cause Depression |
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530 | (1) |
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13.1.3 Depression Is Associated with Changes in Brain Structure and Function |
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531 | (2) |
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13.1.4 Drugs and Psychotherapy Help Many People with Depression, and New Treatments Are Emerging |
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533 | (6) |
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539 | (11) |
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13.2.1 Clinical Signs of Schizophrenia Include Positive, Negative, and Cognitive Symptoms |
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540 | (3) |
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13.2.2 Genes and Environmental Influences Contribute to Schizophrenia |
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543 | (2) |
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13.2.3 Schizophrenia Is Associated with Structural and Functional Abnormalities of the Brain |
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545 | (1) |
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13.2.4 Nearly All Antipsychotic Drugs Block Dopamine Receptors |
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546 | (3) |
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13.2.5 Is Psychological Therapy Beneficial for Individuals with Schizophrenia? |
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549 | (1) |
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550 | (10) |
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13.3.1 Parkinsonian Motor Symptoms Result from the Loss of Nigrostriatal Dopamine Neurons |
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550 | (3) |
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13.3.2 Clumps of Misfolded Proteins Are Often Found within Dying Dopamine Neurons |
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553 | (2) |
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13.3.3 Genetic and Environmental Factors Contribute to Parkinson's Disease |
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
13.3.4 L-DOPA Is the Gold Standard for Treating Parkinson's Disease |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
13.3.5 Modern Technologies Promise Better Ways to Overcome Parkinsonian Motor Impairments |
|
|
557 | (3) |
|
|
560 | (9) |
|
13.4.1 Alzheimer's Includes Memory Loss and Other Signs of Cognitive Deterioration |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
13.4.2 Neuronal Loss, Amyloid Plaques, and Neurofibrillary Tangles Are Signs of Alzheimer's |
|
|
561 | (4) |
|
13.4.3 Genetic Factors Contribute to Alzheimer's |
|
|
565 | (2) |
|
13.4.4 It Remains Unclear Whether Environmental Factors Contribute to Alzheimer's |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
13.4.5 Current Research Is Focused on Preventing Plaques and Tangles |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
|
571 | (7) |
14 Higher Cognitive Function |
|
578 | (38) |
|
|
580 | (8) |
|
14.1.1 The Left and Right Hemispheres Have Distinct Specializations |
|
|
580 | (2) |
|
14.1.2 Split-Brain Surgery Interrupts Communication between the Two Hemispheres |
|
|
582 | (6) |
|
14.2 Language and the Brain |
|
|
588 | (14) |
|
14.2.1 Speech Production and Comprehension Depend upon Different Brain Areas |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
14.2.2 Broca's Aphasia Disrupts Speech Production |
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
14.2.3 What Does Broca's Area Do? |
|
|
592 | (2) |
|
14.2.4 Wernicke's Aphasia Disrupts the Comprehension and Meaningful Content of Speech |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
14.2.5 Perceiving Words Activates Different Brain Regions than Understanding Their Meanings |
|
|
594 | (4) |
|
14.2.6 Beyond Broca's or Wernicke's Aphasia |
|
|
598 | (2) |
|
14.2.7 Dyslexia Is Associated with Reduced Activity in the Visual Word Form Area |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
14.2.8 Bilinguals Show Increased Density of Connections between Brain Areas |
|
|
601 | (1) |
|
|
602 | (7) |
|
14.3.1 The Default Network: The Wandering Mind |
|
|
603 | (2) |
|
14.3.2 Metacognition: Thinking about Thinking |
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
14.3.3 Mentalizing: Reflecting on the Thoughts of Others |
|
|
606 | (3) |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
|
610 | (6) |
Index |
|
616 | |