Foreword |
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xv | |
Preface |
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xvii | |
Acknowledgments |
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xix | |
Authors |
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xxi | |
Contributors |
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xxiii | |
1 Introduction to Sustainable Energy |
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1 | (54) |
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1.1 Sustainability Principles |
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2 | (5) |
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1.1.1 Energy Crisis: Security Issues |
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3 | (2) |
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1.1.2 Sustainable Development |
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5 | (1) |
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1.1.3 Sustainability Principles in Practice |
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6 | (1) |
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1.1.4 Challenges for Sustainability Engineering |
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7 | (1) |
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1.2 Carrying Capacity and Exponential Growth |
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7 | (8) |
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7 | (2) |
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9 | (2) |
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11 | (1) |
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1.2.4 Per Capita Energy Use |
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12 | (1) |
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1.2.5 Mathematics of Exponential Growth |
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12 | (3) |
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1.3 Context for Sustainable Energy |
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15 | (3) |
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1.3.1 Historical Energy Development in the United States |
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15 | (2) |
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17 | (1) |
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1.3.3 Future Energy Scenarios for the United States |
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18 | (1) |
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1.4 Key Sustainability Considerations |
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18 | (10) |
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1.4.1 The Challenge of Climate Change |
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18 | (5) |
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1.4.2 Energy Economic Efficiency |
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23 | (1) |
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1.4.3 Energy Return on Energy Invested |
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23 | (2) |
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1.4.4 Cost of Energy Production |
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25 | (1) |
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1.4.5 Other Costs of Energy Development |
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26 | (2) |
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1.5 Energy Efficiency and Conservation |
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28 | (3) |
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1.5.1 Energy End-Use Demand Reduction in Buildings |
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29 | (1) |
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1.5.2 Energy End-Use Demand Reduction in Transportation |
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30 | (1) |
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1.5.3 Energy Management in Industry and Manufacturing |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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32 | (8) |
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33 | (1) |
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1.7.2 Solar Photovoltaics |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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1.7.4 Ocean and Geothermal Energy |
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36 | (2) |
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1.7.5 Biomass and Biofuel |
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38 | (1) |
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1.7.6 Hydroelectric Generation |
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39 | (1) |
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40 | (2) |
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1.9 NREL System Advisor Model |
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42 | (3) |
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Energy Units and Conversion Factors |
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45 | (1) |
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45 | (3) |
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48 | (2) |
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50 | (1) |
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51 | (2) |
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53 | (2) |
2 Economics of Energy Generation and Conservation Systems |
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55 | (22) |
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55 | (1) |
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56 | (1) |
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57 | (2) |
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59 | (1) |
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2.5 Total Life Cycle Costs |
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60 | (3) |
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2.6 Internal Rate of Return |
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63 | (3) |
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2.7 Capital Recovery Factor |
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66 | (2) |
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2.8 Levelized Cost of Energy |
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68 | (3) |
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2.9 Societal and Environmental Costs |
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71 | (2) |
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73 | (2) |
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75 | (2) |
3 Energy Systems Analysis Methodologies |
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77 | (30) |
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77 | (4) |
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1.2 Process Chain Analysis |
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81 | (2) |
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3.3 Input-Output (I/O) Analysis |
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83 | (4) |
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87 | (5) |
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3.5 Energy Return on Energy Invested |
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92 | (9) |
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3.5.1 Calculation of EROI |
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95 | (1) |
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3.5.2 EROI and Energy Budgets |
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96 | (3) |
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3.5.3 EROI for a Wind Energy System |
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99 | (2) |
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3.6 Greenhouse Gas Accounting |
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101 | (2) |
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103 | (2) |
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105 | (2) |
4 Energy Use and Efficiency in Buildings and Industry |
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107 | (52) |
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107 | (3) |
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4.2 Energy Audits and Energy Management |
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110 | (2) |
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112 | (36) |
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4.3.1 Calculations of Heating and Hot Water Loads in Buildings |
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112 | (9) |
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4.3.1.1 Calculation of Heat Loss |
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112 | (4) |
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4.3.1.2 Internal Heat Sources in Buildings |
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116 | (1) |
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4.3.1.3 Degree-Day Method |
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116 | (4) |
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4.3.1.4 Service Hot Water Load Calculation |
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120 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Cooling Requirements for Buildings |
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121 | (4) |
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4.3.3 Vapor-Compression Cycle |
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125 | (5) |
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4.3.4 Evaporative Cooling |
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130 | (1) |
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4.3.5 Energy Efficiency in Commercial Buildings |
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130 | (7) |
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4.3.5.1 Commercial Buildings Case Studies |
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135 | (2) |
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4.3.6 Energy Efficiency in Residential Buildings |
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137 | (9) |
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4.3.6.1 Residential Case Study: Net-Zero Habitat for Humanity House |
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145 | (1) |
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4.3.7 Zero-Energy Urban Districts |
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146 | (2) |
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4.4 Industrial Energy Efficiency |
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148 | (6) |
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148 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Improving Industrial Processes |
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148 | (3) |
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4.4.3 Improvements in Industrial Equipment |
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151 | (3) |
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154 | (2) |
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156 | (3) |
5 Electricity Supply Systems |
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159 | (36) |
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5.1 Historical Development of the U.S. Electric Power System |
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159 | (1) |
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5.2 Electrical Transmission |
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160 | (3) |
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5.3 The Electric Grid and Electricity Markets |
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163 | (7) |
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166 | (1) |
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5.3.2 Electricity Markets |
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166 | (29) |
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167 | (1) |
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168 | (1) |
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5.3.2.3 Ancillary Services Market |
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169 | (1) |
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5.3.2.4 Financial Transmission Rights Market |
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170 | (1) |
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170 | (5) |
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5.5 Integration of Variable Renewable Energy into the Grid |
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175 | (9) |
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5.6 Demand Response and Transactional Controls |
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184 | (3) |
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187 | (6) |
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193 | (2) |
6 Fossil Fuels |
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195 | (28) |
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6.1 Fossil Fuel Resources and Extraction |
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195 | (8) |
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195 | (3) |
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198 | (2) |
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200 | (3) |
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6.2 Fossil Fuel Combustion and Energy Conversion Technologies |
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203 | (7) |
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203 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Fossil Fuel Use for Heat |
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204 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Electricity Generation from Pulverized Coal |
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205 | (3) |
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6.2.4 Electricity Generation from Natural Gas |
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208 | (1) |
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6.2.5 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle |
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209 | (1) |
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6.3 Air Pollution from Fossil Fuel Combustion |
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210 | (7) |
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6.3.1 Local and Regional Scale Air Pollution |
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210 | (2) |
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6.3.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate Change |
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212 | (3) |
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6.3.3 Carbon Capture and Sequestration |
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215 | (2) |
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6.3.4 Leaving It in the Ground |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (2) |
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219 | (4) |
7 Nuclear Energy |
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223 | (22) |
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223 | (2) |
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225 | (4) |
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7.3 Available Nuclear Resources |
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229 | (2) |
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229 | (2) |
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231 | (1) |
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231 | (2) |
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7.4.1 Pressurized-Water Reactors (PWRs) |
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231 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) |
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232 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated Reactor |
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233 | (1) |
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7.5 Nuclear Waste Management and Disposal |
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233 | (3) |
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7.6 Spent Fuel Storage and Reprocessing |
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236 | (1) |
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7.7 Nuclear Power Plant Accidents |
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237 | (1) |
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7.8 Current Status and Cost of Nuclear Technology |
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238 | (1) |
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7.9 Next-Generation Nuclear Technologies |
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238 | (3) |
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241 | (1) |
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242 | (1) |
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242 | (3) |
8 Wind Energy |
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245 | (62) |
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245 | (3) |
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248 | (4) |
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8.2.1 Noise and Visual Impact |
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249 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Land, and Water Use |
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250 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Bird and Bat Fatalities |
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250 | (2) |
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8.3 Power and Energy of Wind |
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252 | (2) |
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8.4 Coefficient of Performance |
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254 | (1) |
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255 | (3) |
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258 | (11) |
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258 | (1) |
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8.6.2 Distribution of Wind |
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259 | (2) |
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8.6.3 Wind Speed Increasing with Height |
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261 | (1) |
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8.6.4 Log Law Wind Speed Profile |
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261 | (2) |
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8.6.5 Power Law Wind Speed Profile |
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263 | (2) |
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8.6.6 Probability of Observing a Given Wind Speed |
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265 | (4) |
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269 | (10) |
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278 | (1) |
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8.8 Levelized Cost of Energy for a Wind Turbine |
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279 | (5) |
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284 | (3) |
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8.10 Offshore Wind Energy |
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287 | (5) |
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8.11 System Advisor Model for Wind Farm Analysis |
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292 | (6) |
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8.12 Additional Topics for Study |
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298 | (2) |
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300 | (1) |
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300 | (3) |
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303 | (4) |
9 Capturing Solar Energy through Biomass |
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307 | (44) |
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9.1 Biomass Production and Land Use |
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307 | (11) |
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308 | (1) |
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309 | (2) |
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311 | (1) |
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9.1.4 Land Use for Biomass Production |
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311 | (5) |
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9.1.5 Important Properties of Biomass |
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316 | (2) |
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9.2 Biomass Process Economics and Technology |
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318 | (24) |
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9.2.1 Biomass Process Economics |
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318 | (3) |
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9.2.2 Conversion of Biomass to Gaseous Fuels |
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321 | (5) |
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9.2.2.1 Biomass to Biogas |
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321 | (1) |
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9.2.2.2 Biomass to Synthetic Gas |
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321 | (5) |
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9.2.3 Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Fuels |
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326 | (10) |
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327 | (1) |
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9.2.3.2 Cellulosic Ethanol |
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328 | (1) |
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9.2.3.3 Biomass Fermentation to Alternative Fuels |
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329 | (1) |
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9.2.3.4 Biomass to Fischer-Tropsch Liquids |
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330 | (1) |
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9.2.3.5 Biomass Pyrolysis Oil to Gasoline and Diesel |
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331 | (2) |
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9.2.3.6 Compressed Gases as Transportation Fuel |
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333 | (1) |
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9.2.3.7 Modern Concepts in Biofuel Conversion |
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333 | (3) |
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9.2.4 Conversion of Biomass to Electricity |
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336 | (4) |
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9.2.4.1 Direct Combustion |
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336 | (2) |
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9.2.4.2 Combustion Equipment |
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338 | (1) |
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339 | (1) |
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9.2.5 Fossil and Biomass Fuel Properties |
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340 | (2) |
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9.3 Use of Biomass in Developing Communities |
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342 | (2) |
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344 | (1) |
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345 | (2) |
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347 | (4) |
10 Fundamentals of Solar Radiation |
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351 | (46) |
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10.1 Physics of the Sun and Its Energy Transport |
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351 | (1) |
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10.2 Thermal Radiation Fundamentals |
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352 | (9) |
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10.2.1 Black-Body Radiation |
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353 | (1) |
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10.2.2 Radiation Function Tables |
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354 | (3) |
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10.2.3 Intensity of Radiation and Shape Factor |
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357 | (3) |
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10.2.4 Transmission of Radiation through a Medium |
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360 | (1) |
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10.3 Sun-Earth Geometric Relationship |
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361 | (15) |
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10.3.1 Solar Time and Angles |
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364 | (5) |
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369 | (5) |
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10.3.3 Shadow-Angle Protractor |
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374 | (2) |
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376 | (5) |
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10.4.1 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation |
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377 | (4) |
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10.5 Estimation of Terrestrial Solar Radiation |
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381 | (7) |
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10.5.1 Atmospheric Extinction of Solar Radiation |
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381 | (2) |
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10.5.2 Solar Radiation on Clear Days |
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383 | (1) |
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10.5.3 Solar Radiation on a Tilted Surface |
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384 | (4) |
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10.6 TMY Data to Determine Solar Radiation |
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388 | (1) |
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10.7 Measurement of Solar Radiation |
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388 | (6) |
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10.7.1 Instruments for Measuring Solar Radiation and Sunshine |
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389 | (3) |
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10.7.2 Detectors for Solar Radiation Instrumentation |
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392 | (1) |
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10.7.3 Measurement of Sunshine Duration |
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393 | (1) |
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10.7.4 Measurement of Spectral Solar Radiation |
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393 | (1) |
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10.7.5 National Solar Radiation Database |
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393 | (1) |
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394 | (1) |
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395 | (2) |
11 Photovoltaics |
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397 | (50) |
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399 | (7) |
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402 | (1) |
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11.1.2 Photovoltaic Effect |
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402 | (4) |
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11.2 Analysis of Photovoltaic Cells |
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406 | (9) |
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11.2.1 Efficiency of Solar Cells |
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411 | (1) |
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11.2.2 Multijunction Solar Cells |
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411 | (1) |
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11.2.3 Design of a Photovoltaic System |
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412 | (3) |
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11.3 Manufacture of Solar Cells and Panels |
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415 | (5) |
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11.3.1 Single Crystal and Polycrystalline Cells |
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415 | (4) |
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419 | (1) |
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11.4 Design for Remote Photovoltaic Applications |
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420 | (5) |
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11.4.1 Estimation of Loads and Load Profiles |
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420 | (2) |
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11.4.2 Estimation of Available Solar Radiation |
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422 | (1) |
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422 | (2) |
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11.4.4 Water Pumping Applications |
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424 | (1) |
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11.5 Thin-Film PV Technology |
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425 | (2) |
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11.6 Multilayer PV Technology |
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427 | (7) |
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434 | (2) |
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11.8 Using System Advisor Model (SAM) for PV Performance Estimates |
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436 | (5) |
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441 | (3) |
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444 | (1) |
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445 | (2) |
12 Solar Thermal Collectors and Systems |
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447 | (58) |
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12.1 Radiation Properties of Materials |
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447 | (4) |
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12.1.1 Selective Surfaces |
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449 | (1) |
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12.1.2 Reflective Surfaces |
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449 | (2) |
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12.2 Energy Balance for a Flat Plate Collector |
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451 | (2) |
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12.3 Experimental Testing of Collectors |
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453 | (3) |
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12.3.1 Testing Standards for Solar Thermal Collectors |
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454 | (2) |
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12.4 Evacuated Tube Collectors |
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456 | (1) |
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12.5 Transpired Air Collectors |
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457 | (3) |
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12.6 Concentrating Solar Collectors |
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460 | (6) |
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12.6.1 Line-Focus Concentrators |
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460 | (3) |
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12.6.1.1 Parabolic Troughs |
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460 | (3) |
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12.6.1.2 Linear Fresnel Collectors |
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463 | (1) |
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12.6.2 Point-Focus Concentrators |
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463 | (3) |
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12.7 Solar Domestic Hot Water, Space Heating, and Cooling Systems |
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466 | (16) |
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12.7.1 Solar Thermosyphon Water Heating |
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466 | (4) |
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12.7.2 Forced-Circulation Hot Water Systems |
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470 | (6) |
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12.7.3 Liquid-Based Solar Heating Systems for Buildings |
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476 | (1) |
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12.7.4 Passive Solar Heating Systems |
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477 | (3) |
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12.7.5 Solar Cooling Systems |
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480 | (2) |
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12.8 Solar Thermal Power Plants |
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482 | (16) |
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12.8.1 Parabolic Trough-Based Power Plants |
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482 | (8) |
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490 | (8) |
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12.9 Solar Industrial Process Heat |
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498 | (3) |
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501 | (1) |
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502 | (3) |
13 Ocean, Hydropower, and Geothermal Energy Conversion |
|
505 | (36) |
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13.1 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion |
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505 | (11) |
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13.1.1 Closed-Cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion |
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|
507 | (4) |
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13.1.2 Open-Cycle Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion |
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511 | (2) |
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13.1.3 Direct Contact Evaporation and Condensation |
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513 | (1) |
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13.1.4 Comparison of Open-and Closed-Cycle OTEC Systems |
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514 | (1) |
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13.1.5 Cold-Water Pipe and Pumping Requirements |
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515 | (1) |
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516 | (1) |
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516 | (7) |
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523 | (5) |
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13.3.1 Deep Water Wave Power |
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523 | (3) |
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13.3.2 Wave Power Devices |
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526 | (2) |
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528 | (3) |
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531 | (6) |
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531 | (6) |
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13.5.1.1 Current Commercial Geothermal Power Technologies |
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534 | (2) |
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13.5.1.2 Technology Status |
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536 | (1) |
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13.5.2 Direct Use of Geothermal Energy |
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537 | (1) |
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537 | (2) |
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|
539 | (2) |
14 Storage Technologies |
|
541 | (44) |
|
14.1 Overview of Storage Technology |
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|
541 | (3) |
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542 | (1) |
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14.1.2 Technology Characterization |
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|
542 | (2) |
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14.2 Mechanical Technologies |
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|
544 | (7) |
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14.2.1 Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage |
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|
546 | (3) |
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|
548 | (1) |
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14.2.2 Compressed Air Energy Storage |
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549 | (1) |
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550 | (1) |
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14.3 Direct Electrical Technologies |
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551 | (1) |
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|
551 | (1) |
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14.3.2 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage |
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|
551 | (1) |
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14.4 Fundamentals of Batteries and Fuel Cells |
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|
551 | (4) |
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14.4.1 Principles of Battery Operation |
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|
553 | (2) |
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555 | (1) |
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14.5 Rechargeable Batteries |
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|
555 | (7) |
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14.5.1 Lead-Acid Batteries |
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|
556 | (2) |
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14.5.2 Nickel Metal (Ni-Cd and Ni-MH) |
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|
558 | (1) |
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559 | (1) |
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560 | (2) |
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14.6 Fuel Cells and Hydrogen |
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|
562 | (4) |
|
14.6.1 Principles of Fuel Cell Operation |
|
|
562 | (1) |
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14.6.2 Types of Fuel Cells |
|
|
563 | (1) |
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14.6.3 Generation of Hydrogen |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
14.6.4 Storage and Transport |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
14.6.5 Thermodynamics and Economics |
|
|
565 | (1) |
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14.7 Thermal Energy Storage |
|
|
566 | (10) |
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
14.7.2 Phase Change Heat Storage |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
14.7.3 Thermochemical Storage |
|
|
568 | (2) |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
14.7.5 Thermal Storage for Concentrating Collector Systems |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
14.7.6 Overnight Storage for Buildings and Domestic Hot Water |
|
|
570 | (6) |
|
14.8 Virtual Storage in the Electric Transmission Grid |
|
|
576 | (4) |
|
|
580 | (2) |
|
|
582 | (3) |
15 Transportation |
|
585 | (28) |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
15.2 Overview of Transportation Systems and Energy Use |
|
|
586 | (3) |
|
15.3 Well-to-Wheels Analysis |
|
|
589 | (3) |
|
|
592 | (2) |
|
15.5 Hybrid Electric Vehicles |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
15.6 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles |
|
|
595 | (3) |
|
15.7 Combining HEVs or PHEVs with Biofuels |
|
|
598 | (4) |
|
15.7.1 Petroleum Requirement |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
15.7.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions |
|
|
600 | (2) |
|
15.8 Future All-Electric System |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
15.9 Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel |
|
|
602 | (2) |
|
15.10 Hydrogen for Transportation |
|
|
604 | (2) |
|
|
606 | (3) |
|
|
609 | (2) |
|
|
611 | (2) |
Index |
|
613 | |