| About the Authors |
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xiii | |
| Opening Remark |
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xv | |
| Preliminary Remark |
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xvii | |
| Preface |
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xix | |
| 1 Basics of Fire and Explosion: Risk Assessment |
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1 | (18) |
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1.1 Basic Considerations on Fire and Explosion (KR T1) |
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1 | (2) |
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2 | (1) |
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2 | (1) |
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3 | (1) |
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3 | (1) |
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3 | (1) |
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3 | (3) |
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1.2.1 Explosion Limits with Flammable Liquids |
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3 | (3) |
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1.2.1.1 Classification of Flammable Liquids |
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5 | (1) |
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1.2.2 Explosion Limits with Combustible Dusts |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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1.4 Allocation of Explosion-Endangered Areas and Permissible Equipment (P6) |
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7 | (1) |
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1.5 Permissible Equipment (Equipment Protection Level) |
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7 | (2) |
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1.5.1 Classification of Equipment Protection Level That Is Currently in the Introductory Stage |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (2) |
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9 | (1) |
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1.6.2 Flames and Hot Gases (Including Hot Particles) |
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9 | (1) |
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1.6.3 Mechanically Generated Sparks (MGS) |
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10 | (1) |
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1.6.4 Electrical Apparatus |
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10 | (1) |
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1.6.5 Cathodic Protection |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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1.6.8 Electromagnetic Field |
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10 | (1) |
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1.6.9 Electromagnetic Radiation |
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10 | (1) |
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1.6.10 Ionizing Radiation |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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1.6.12 Adiabatic Compression and Shock Waves |
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11 | (1) |
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1.6.13 Chemical Reactions |
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11 | (1) |
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1.7 Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) |
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11 | (4) |
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1.8 Imaginary Experiment to Assess the Hazardous Potential of Flammable Liquids |
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15 | (3) |
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18 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
| 2 Principles of Static Electricity |
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19 | (22) |
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19 | (2) |
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2.2 Electrostatic Charging of Solids (T2) |
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21 | (3) |
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24 | (1) |
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24 | (4) |
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2.4.1 Influence of Surface Texture on Static Charging |
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28 | (1) |
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2.5 Electrostatic Charging of Liquids (T2, T8) |
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28 | (3) |
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2.5.1 Charge Relaxation with Liquids |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (2) |
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33 | (3) |
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2.8 Electric Induction (R T3) |
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36 | (2) |
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2.8.1 Specification of Electric Induction |
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36 | (1) |
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37 | (1) |
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2.9 Capacitance and Capacitor |
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38 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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39 | (2) |
| 3 Metrology |
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41 | (48) |
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41 | (3) |
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3.1.1 "Walking Test" as a Paradigmatic Example |
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41 | (3) |
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3.2 Appropriate Metrology for Electrostatic Safety Measures |
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44 | (1) |
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3.3 Comparison: Electrostatics/Electrical Engineering |
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44 | (1) |
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3.4 Selecting the Suitable Measurement Methods |
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45 | (4) |
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3.4.1 Electrical Resistance |
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45 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Fundamental Remarks for the Realization of Resistance Measurements (T4) |
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46 | (3) |
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3.4.2.1 Volume Resistance and Deriving Volume Resistivity |
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46 | (1) |
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3.4.2.2 Guard Ring Circuit to Measure the Volume Resistance |
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47 | (1) |
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3.4.2.3 Surface Resistance and Deriving Surface Resistivity |
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48 | (1) |
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3.4.2.4 Guard Ring Circuit to Measure the Surface Resistance |
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49 | (1) |
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3.5 Assignment and Summary |
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49 | (2) |
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3.5.1 Additive-Depleted Surface |
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50 | (1) |
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3.6 Conductivity of Liquids |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (1) |
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3.8 Concerning the Use of Insulating Material in Endangered Areas |
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52 | (1) |
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3.9 Measurement of Electrostatic Charges |
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52 | (16) |
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3.9.1 Voltage Measurement with Electrostatic Voltmeters |
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53 | (1) |
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3.9.2 Charge Measurement by Means of a Faraday Pail |
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54 | (2) |
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55 | (1) |
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3.9.2.2 Charge Measurement on Free-Falling Objects |
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55 | (1) |
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3.9.3 Measurement of Electric Field Strength |
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56 | (12) |
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3.9.3.1 Induction Electric Field Meters |
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56 | (2) |
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3.9.3.2 Errors When Measuring Field Strength |
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58 | (3) |
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3.9.3.3 Further Types of Electric Field Meters |
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61 | (4) |
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3.9.3.4 Further Applications of Induction Electric Field Meters |
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65 | (3) |
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3.10 Other Measurement Applications |
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68 | (9) |
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3.10.1 Measurement of Surface Charge on Moving Webs |
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68 | (1) |
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3.10.2 Analysis of Protective Textile Clothing (Workwear) |
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68 | (3) |
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3.10.2.1 Triboelectric Test Procedure |
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69 | (1) |
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3.10.2.2 Test Procedures with Electrostatic Influence |
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69 | (2) |
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3.10.3 Test Procedure to Determine Discharge Capacity (Charged Plate Monitor) |
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71 | (2) |
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3.10.4 Test Procedure for Paper |
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73 | (1) |
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3.10.5 Electrostatic Charging of Powdery Bulk Materials |
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74 | (1) |
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3.10.6 Electrostatic Charging with Fluids |
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75 | (1) |
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3.10.7 Electrostatic Charges in Chemical Production |
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76 | (1) |
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77 | (4) |
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3.11.1 Capacitance Measurement (Charging Methods) |
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77 | (1) |
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3.11.2 Measurement of the Permittivity Value |
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78 | (1) |
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3.11.3 Charge Decay Measurement (Relaxation Time) |
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79 | (2) |
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3.12 Themes around Air Humidity |
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81 | (6) |
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3.12.1 Definitions about Climate |
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81 | (1) |
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3.12.2 Fundamental Principles and Definitions |
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82 | (1) |
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3.12.3 Methods of Measuring Atmospheric Humidity |
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83 | (3) |
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3.12.3.1 Dew Point Hygrometry |
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83 | (1) |
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3.12.3.2 Absorption Method |
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84 | (1) |
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84 | (1) |
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3.12.3.4 Psychrometer with Wet- and Dry-Bulb Thermometers |
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84 | (1) |
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3.12.3.5 Lithium-Chloride Hygrometer |
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85 | (1) |
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3.12.3.6 Capacitive Hygrometer |
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86 | (1) |
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3.12.3.7 Resistive Hygrometer |
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86 | (1) |
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3.12.4 Monitoring and Calibrating of Hygrometers |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (1) |
| 4 Gas Discharges |
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89 | (24) |
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4.1 Mechanisms of Gas Discharges (T5) |
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89 | (1) |
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4.2 Electrostatic Gas Discharges |
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90 | (4) |
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4.2.1 Detecting Gas Discharges by Means of Their High-Frequency Emissions |
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92 | (2) |
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4.3 Types of Gas Discharges |
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94 | (8) |
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94 | (1) |
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4.3.2 One-Electrode Discharges |
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95 | (8) |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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4.3.2.3 Cone Discharge (also Referred to as Powder Heap Discharge) |
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98 | (1) |
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4.3.2.4 Propagating Brush Discharge |
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98 | (4) |
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4.4 Consequences of Gas Discharges |
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102 | (1) |
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4.5 Listing of Traces Caused by Gas Discharges (P11; T8) |
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102 | (1) |
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4.6 How Can Dangerous Gas Discharges Be Avoided? |
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103 | (8) |
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4.6.1 Spark Discharges (V4.1) |
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104 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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4.6.3 Brush Discharges and Super Brush Discharges |
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104 | (2) |
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106 | (1) |
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4.6.5 Propagating Brush Discharges |
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107 | (1) |
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4.6.5.1 Curiosity When Hydraulic Oil Gradually Flows Out of a Metal Pipe |
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107 | (1) |
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4.6.5.2 Pores at Enameled Containers |
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108 | (1) |
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4.6.6 Simplified Overview of the Occurrence of Different Types of Gas Discharges |
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108 | (1) |
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4.6.7 Assessment of Ignition Dangers Originating from Gas Discharges |
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108 | (3) |
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4.6.8 Electrostatic Shock |
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111 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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111 | (2) |
| 5 Preventing Electrostatic Disturbances |
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113 | (26) |
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5.1 Electrostatics: When Sparks Fly |
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113 | (4) |
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117 | (1) |
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5.3 Discharging Charged Surfaces |
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118 | (16) |
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5.3.1 Discharging on Material Webs |
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119 | (8) |
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5.3.1.1 Behavior of Composite Materials |
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125 | (2) |
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5.3.2 Discharging of Sheets |
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127 | (1) |
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5.3.3 Discharging Other Objects |
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127 | (2) |
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5.3.4 Discharging Granules and Similar Particles |
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129 | (5) |
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5.4 Potential Hazards Posed by Discharge Electrodes |
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134 | (2) |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (2) |
| 6 Description of Demonstration Experiments |
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139 | (38) |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (1) |
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142 | (1) |
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6.4 Van de Graaff Generator |
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142 | (1) |
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142 | (2) |
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6.6 Electrostatic Force Effects |
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144 | (5) |
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145 | (1) |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (1) |
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6.6.4 Depicting Electrical Field Lines (in a Classical Way) |
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148 | (1) |
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6.7 Charges Caused by Separating Process |
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149 | (1) |
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6.8 Charging of Particles |
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150 | (3) |
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6.8.1 Charging of Single Particles |
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150 | (2) |
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6.8.2 Charging of Many Particles (Granules) |
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152 | (1) |
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153 | (4) |
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153 | (1) |
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154 | (1) |
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6.9.3 Electric Induction on Isolated Conductive Parts |
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155 | (2) |
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6.10 Dissipating Properties |
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157 | (1) |
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6.11 Experiments with the Explosion Tube |
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158 | (2) |
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6.11.1 Electrostatic Charging of a Person |
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158 | (1) |
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159 | (1) |
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6.11.3 Charging by Separation |
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160 | (1) |
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160 | (8) |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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6.12.4 Model Experiment: Ignition by Brush Discharges |
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162 | (1) |
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6.12.5 Evidence of Ion Wind |
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163 | (1) |
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6.12.6 Super Brush Discharges |
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163 | (1) |
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6.12.7 Propagating Brush Discharges |
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164 | (4) |
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6.12.7.1 Ignition, of Dust |
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165 | (1) |
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6.12.7.2 Short Circuit of a Double-Layer Charge |
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166 | (2) |
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6.13 Fire and Explosion Dangers |
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168 | (7) |
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168 | (1) |
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6.13.2 Effects with Large Surfaces |
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168 | (1) |
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169 | (1) |
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6.13.4 Progressive Flame Front |
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170 | (1) |
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6.13.5 "Decanting" of Gasoline Vapors |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (1) |
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6.13.7 Extinguishing with Water |
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173 | (1) |
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6.13.8 Burning Handkerchief Does Not Burn Up |
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174 | (1) |
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6.13.9 Inflaming Solid Combustibles |
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174 | (3) |
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6.13.9.1 Gasification Process with Wood |
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174 | (1) |
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6.13.9.2 Inflaming a Dust Heap |
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175 | (1) |
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175 | (2) |
| 7 Case Studies |
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177 | (46) |
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7.1 Strategy of Investigation |
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177 | (3) |
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178 | (1) |
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179 | (1) |
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179 | (1) |
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7.2 Ignitions Due to Brush Discharges |
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180 | (12) |
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7.2.1 Pouring Flaked Product into an Agitator Vessel |
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180 | (1) |
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7.2.2 PE Liner Slipping Out of Paper Bag |
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181 | (1) |
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7.2.3 Ignition Caused by an Antistatic PE Bag |
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182 | (1) |
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7.2.4 Shaking Fine Dust Out of a PE Bag (Hybrid Mixture) |
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183 | (2) |
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7.2.5 Pumping Polluted Toluene |
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185 | (1) |
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7.2.6 Impregnation of a Glass Fiber Fabric |
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186 | (1) |
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7.2.7 Filling Pipe Blocked with Sulfur Leading to Ignition of Methanol |
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187 | (1) |
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7.2.8 Ion Exchanger Resin in Toluene |
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188 | (1) |
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7.2.9 Two Explosions in Big Storage Tanks |
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189 | (3) |
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7.2.9.1 Explosion in a Floating Roof Tank Followed by Fire (2014) |
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189 | (1) |
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7.2.9.2 Explosion Disaster Near Bitburg (1954) |
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190 | (2) |
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7.3 Case Studies Related to Propagating Brush Discharges |
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192 | (12) |
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7.3.1 Explosion in a Railcar Bulk Container |
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192 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Metal Drum with Inner Liner |
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193 | (2) |
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7.3.3 Plastic Drum with Inner Liner |
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195 | (1) |
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7.3.4 Failed Attempt to Eliminate Electrostatic Nuisances |
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195 | (2) |
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7.3.5 Fire in a Spray-Bed Dryer |
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197 | (3) |
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7.3.6 Ignition in a Micronizer Jet Mill |
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200 | (1) |
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7.3.7 Explosion During Rotational Molding |
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201 | (1) |
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7.3.8 Explosion in a Mixing Silo for Plastic Granules |
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202 | (1) |
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7.3.9 Curiosity During Outflow of Liquid from a Metal Pipe |
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202 | (2) |
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7.4 Case Histories Related to Spark Discharges |
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204 | (8) |
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7.4.1 Powder Explosion in a Metal Drum |
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204 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Dust Removal from Pharmaceutical Pills |
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205 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Sparks at a Throttle Valve (V4.1) |
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206 | (1) |
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7.4.4 Filling n-Hexane into Metal Drums (P 15) |
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207 | (1) |
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208 | (2) |
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7.4.6 Water Flowing Through PVC Hose |
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210 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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7.4.8 Miraculous Earthing Clamp |
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212 | (1) |
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7.5 Ignition Caused by Cone Discharges |
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212 | (1) |
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7.6 Doubts with Electrostatic Ignitions |
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213 | (6) |
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7.6.1 Fire in a Polyethylene Drum |
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213 | (2) |
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7.6.2 Fire in a Solvent Cleaning Area |
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215 | (3) |
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7.6.3 Burst of a Glass Pipe |
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218 | (1) |
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7.7 Act with Relevant Experience |
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219 | (1) |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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221 | (2) |
| 8 Targeted Use of Charges |
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223 | (30) |
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223 | (3) |
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8.2 Examples of the Creative Implementation of Applications |
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226 | (25) |
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8.2.1 Adhesive Bonding - Blocking |
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226 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Adhesion of an Insert on a Variable Base |
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227 | (2) |
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8.2.3 Blocking a Number of Paper Webs or Film Webs in One Ribbon |
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229 | (1) |
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8.2.4 Adhesion of a Melt Layer on the Chill Roll |
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230 | (1) |
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8.2.5 Avoiding Telescoping When Winding |
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231 | (1) |
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8.2.6 In-Mold-Labeling (IML)-In-Mold-Decoration (IMD) |
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232 | (2) |
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8.2.7 Oil Application on Metal Sheets |
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234 | (1) |
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8.2.8 Application of Liquid Media on Fast Moving Webs |
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234 | (2) |
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8.2.9 Drying of Fast Moving Substrates |
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236 | (1) |
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8.2.10 Gravure Printing and Coating Machine |
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237 | (4) |
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8.2.11 Reduction of Particle Mist in the Coating Process |
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241 | (2) |
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8.2.12 Use of Charging for Technical Measurement Processes |
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243 | (1) |
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8.2.13 Precipitation of Mixed Substances |
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244 | (3) |
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247 | (1) |
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8.2.15 Surface Treatment with Corona Systems |
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248 | (3) |
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251 | (1) |
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251 | (1) |
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252 | (1) |
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252 | (1) |
| M Mathematics Toolbox |
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253 | (22) |
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M1 Energy W of a Capacitance |
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255 | (1) |
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M1.1 Minimum Ignition Energy WMIE |
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255 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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M1.3 Electrical Efficiency |
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256 | (1) |
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M2 Field E; Field Strength E |
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256 | (1) |
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M2.1 Homogeneous Field between Plane Plates |
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256 | (1) |
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M2.2 Field of Point Charge |
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256 | (1) |
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M2.3 Permittivity epsilon |
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257 | (1) |
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M2.4 Field of Rod (Wire) Charge |
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257 | (1) |
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M3 Flux Density D (Earlier: Dielectric Displacement) |
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257 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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M4.2 Circular Frequency omega |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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M5.1 Inductance Ls of an Air Coil |
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259 | (1) |
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259 | (3) |
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M6.1 Rod (Wire) across a Conductive Area |
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259 | (1) |
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M6.2 Coaxial Cable/Cylinder Capacitance |
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260 | (1) |
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M6.3 Conductive Sphere in Space |
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260 | (1) |
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M6.4 Sphere Across a Conductive Area |
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260 | (1) |
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M6.5 Shunt of Single Capacitors |
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261 | (1) |
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261 | (1) |
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M6.7 Series of Single Capacitors |
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261 | (1) |
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M6.7.1 Series of Two Single Capacitors |
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261 | (1) |
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262 | (1) |
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M7.1 Force between 2 Point Charges (Coulomb's law) |
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262 | (1) |
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263 | (1) |
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263 | (1) |
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M8.2 Charge of Electron Beam Qe |
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263 | (1) |
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M8.3 Surface Charge Density sima |
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263 | (1) |
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M8.3.1 Maximum Surface Charge Density sigmamax |
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264 | (1) |
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M8.4 Mass Charge Density Q |
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264 | (1) |
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M8.5 Volume Charge Density rho |
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264 | (1) |
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264 | (1) |
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265 | (2) |
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M10.1 In a Homogeneous Electric Field |
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265 | (1) |
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M10.2 Voltage Gradient When Charging a Capacitor |
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265 | (1) |
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M10.3 Voltage Gradient When Discharging a Capacitor |
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265 | (1) |
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M10.4 Time Constant tau (of RC Circuit) |
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266 | (1) |
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M10.5 Kirchhoff's Loop Rule |
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266 | (1) |
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M10.6 Kirchhoff's Junction Rule |
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266 | (1) |
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M10.7 Breakdown Voltage of a Discharge Gap (Paschen's Law) |
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267 | (1) |
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M11 Resistance R (Universal) |
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267 | (8) |
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M11.1 Resistance Ro (Object or Material) |
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267 | (1) |
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M11.2 Surface Resistivity rhos (Object or Material) |
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268 | (1) |
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M11.3 Volume Resistivity rhov (Object or Material) |
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268 | (1) |
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M11.4 Resistivity pv of a Conductor (Wire) |
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268 | (1) |
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M11.5 Leakage Resistance RE (Object or Material) |
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269 | (1) |
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269 | (1) |
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269 | (1) |
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M11.8 Shunt (of Single Resistors) |
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270 | (1) |
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M11.8.1 Shunt of Two Single Resistors |
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270 | (1) |
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M11.9 Series (of Single Resistors) |
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270 | (1) |
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M11.10 Impedance of a Capacitance RC (AC Resistance) |
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271 | (1) |
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M11.11 Impedance of a Inductance RL (AC Resistance) |
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271 | (4) |
| Annex |
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275 | (2) |
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1 Videos for download from www.wiley-vch.de |
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275 | (1) |
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2 PowerPoint Presentations |
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275 | (2) |
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2.1 Theory of Electrostatics (Visualized by Experiments) |
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275 | (1) |
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2.2 Practical Examples with "Freddy" (Electrostatic Hazards in Plant areas) |
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276 | (1) |
| Index |
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277 | |