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E-raamat: World Scientific Handbook of Energy [World Scientific e-raamat]

Edited by Gerard M Crawley (Univ Of South Carolina & Marcus Enterprise Llc, Usa)

Formaat: 588 pages
Sari: Materials and Energy 3
Ilmumisaeg: 21-Feb-2013
Kirjastus: World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd
ISBN-13: 9789814343527

Teised raamatud teemal:

World Scientific e-raamat
Hind: 179,26 €*
* hind, mis tagab piiramatu üheaegsete kasutajate arvuga ligipääsu piiramatuks ajaks

Formaat: 588 pages
Sari: Materials and Energy 3
Ilmumisaeg: 21-Feb-2013
Kirjastus: World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd
ISBN-13: 9789814343527

Teised raamatud teemal:

Rohkem infot World Scientific e-raamatute kohta

Raamatu kodulehekülg: http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/8114#t=toc

Competition for energy resources worldwide will almost certainly increase because of population growth and economic expansion, especially in countries such as China and India, with large populations. In addition, environmental concerns with the use of certain energy sources add a complicating factor to decisions about energy use. Therefore there is likely to be an increased commitment around the world to invest in energy systems.The World Scientific Handbook of Energy provides comprehensive, reliable and timely sets of data on energy resources and uses; it gathers in one publication a concise description of the current state-of-the-art for a wide variety of energy resources, including data on resource availability worldwide and at different cost levels. The end use of energy in transportation, residential and industrial areas is outlined, and energy storage, conservation and the impact on the environment included.Experts and key personnel straddling academia and related agencies and industries provide critical data for further exploration and research.Experts in these various areas who provide relevant data for further exploration and research include former Head of the Nuclear Reactors Directorate of the CEA; Director of the Potential Gas Agency, who leads a team of 100 geologists, geophysicists and petroleum engineers; former CEO of an Icelandic engineering company that specializes in the design, construction and operation of Kalina binary power plants for geothermal, biomass and industrial waste heat recovery applications; Chairman of the Scottish Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Association; former Director of the Geo-Heat Center at the Oregon Institute of Technology, who received the Patricius Medal from the German Geothermal Association for his pioneer work in the direct use of geothermal energy; Division Director of NETL's Strategic Center for Coal, who provides expert guidance and consultation to major DOE-funded clean coal technology and carbon sequestration demonstration projects; an internationally recognized expert in the physics and technology of Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF); former Senior Scientist and Director of the Center for Distributed Generation and Thermal Distribution with Washington State University, who was responsible for state policy, technical assistance to resource developers and investigations related to geothermal energy development; a main author on the 2005 Billion Ton Report and 2011 Billion Ton Update; and many more extremely well published and well known individuals straddling academia and related agencies and industries.

Foreword

xix

1 Introduction

(4)

Gerard M. Crawley

2 Energy, Power, Units, and Conversions

(6)

Gerard M. Crawley

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Different Forms of Energy

(3)

2.1 Mechanical Energy

(1)

2.2 Thermal Energy

(1)

2.3 Electrical Energy

(1)

2.4 Atomic and Nuclear Energy

(1)

2.5 Chemical Energy

(1)

3 Large Energy Units

(1)

4 Power

(2)

References

(2)

3 Coal

(30)

Thomas Sarkus

Adrian Radziwon

William Ellis

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Coal Rank

(1)

3 Coal Resources and Geographic Distribution

(1)

3.1 Coal Resources of the US

(1)

3.2 Coal Analyses

(1)

3.3 US Coal Production and Representative Coal Analyses

(1)

4 Worldwide Coal Resources, Reserves, and Production Levels

(1)

5 Coal Utilization

(14)

5.1 Pulverized Coal (aka Pulverized Fuel) Combustion

(7)

5.2 Fluidized Bed Combustion

(2)

5.3 Gasification

(3)

5.4 Liquefaction

(1)

6 Other Coal Uses

(1)

7 Challenges in Coal Production

(1)

8 Challenges in Coal Usage

(6)

8.1 Worldwide Coal Usage

(1)

8.2 Coal Usage Projections for OECD Nations

(3)

8.3 Coal Usage Projections for Non-OECD Nations

(2)

9 Carbon Dioxide

(4)

9.1 Carbon Dioxide Produced per Kg of Coal

(1)

9.2 Geologic Storage of Carbon Dioxide

(1)

9.2.1 Saline-bearing formations

(1)

9.2.2 Natural gas and oil-bearing formations

(1)

9.2.3 Unmineable coal seams

(1)

9.2.4 Organic-rich shale basins

(1)

9.2.5 Basalt

(1)

9.3 Carbon Dioxide Utilization

(1)

9.4 Cost of Carbon Storage

(1)

References

(1)

4 Petroleum Liquids

(18)

William L. Fisher

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Production and Consumption

(2)

3 Reserves and Resources

(8)

3.1 Reserves

(1)

3.2 Resources

(5)

4 Petroleum Refining

(2)

4.1 Combustion of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel

(1)

5 Future Production

(1)

6 Oil Production Costs

(5)

References

(2)

5 Natural Gas

(16)

John B. Curtis

1 Introduction

(1)

2 Why is Natural Gas Important?

(1)

3 How Natural Gas Forms

(1)

4 Exploration

(1)

5 Development

(1)

6 Production

(3)

6.1 Gas Fields

(1)

6.2 Stranded Gas

(1)

6.3 Producing Wells

(1)

6.3.1 Marketed production

(1)

6.4 Shale Gas

(1)

6.5 Natural Gas Hydrates

(1)

7 Delivering Natural Gas from Producing Region to Market

(5)

7.1 Processing

(1)

7.2 Transportation

(1)

7.3 Delivery

(1)

7.4 Storage

(1)

7.5 Commerce

(1)

7.6 The Integrated Delivery System

(1)

7.7 Liquefied Natural Gas

(1)

8 How Natural Gas is Used

(3)

8.1 Power Generation

(1)

8.2 Combined Heat and Power Generation

(1)

8.2.1 Combined-cycle generation

(1)

8.2.2 Cogeneration

(1)

8.3 Transportation

(1)

9 The Role of Reserves and Potential Resources

(8)

References

(4)

6 Nuclear Power

(28)

Bertrand Barre

1 Introduction

(2)

2 Radioactivity, Fission, and Fusion

(5)

3 How Does a Nuclear Reactor Operate?

(1)

4 Reactor Types

(4)

4.1 "Generations" of Nuclear Reactors

(1)

4.2 Pressurized Water Reactors

(1)

4.3 Boiling Water Reactors

(1)

4.4 Gas-Cooled Reactors (Magnox, AGR, HTR)

(1)

4.5 Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR or Candu)

(1)

4.6 Light Water Graphite Reactors

(1)

4.7 Fast Breeder Reactors

(1)

5 Safety and Accident Prevention

(3)

5.1 Barriers and Defense-in-Depth

(1)

5.2 The INES International Nuclear Events Scale

(1)

5.3 What Happened in Fukushima?

(1)

6 The Nuclear Fuel Cycle

(6)

6.1 Uranium Resources

(1)

6.2 Exploration, Mining, and Concentration

(1)

6.3 Conversion and Isotopic Enrichment

100

(1)

6.4 Fuel Manufacture (PWR)

101

(1)

6.5 Open Cycle or Closed Cycle?

102

(1)

6.6 Reprocessing and Vitrification

103

(1)

7 Radioactive Waste Management and Dismantling

104

(2)

7.1 Waste Categories

104

(1)

7.2 Radioactive Waste Disposal

104

(1)

7.3 Dismantling

105

(1)

8 Economics

106

(1)

9 Non-Proliferation

107

(2)

9.1 Brief History

107

(1)

9.2 Proliferation and Civilian Nuclear Technologies

108

(1)

10 Prospects

109

(2)

References

110

(1)

Further Suggested Readings

110

(1)

7 Magnetic Fusion Energy

111

(20)

R.J. Goldston

M.C. Zarnstorff

1 Overview

111

(4)

2 MFE Physics and Technology

115

(8)

2.1 Breakeven, Gain, and Ignition

115

(2)

2.2 Magnetic Confinement

117

(1)

2.2.1 Transport and turbulence

117

(1)

2.2.2 Stability

118

(1)

2.2.3 Sustainment

119

(1)

2.2.4 Plasma-material interaction

120

(1)

2.2.5 Neutron-material interaction (including tritium breeding)

120

(1)

2.2.6 Magnets

121

(1)

2.2.7 Magnetic field configurations

121

(2)

3 Progress Toward Fusion Energy

123

(3)

3.1 National and International Research Facilities

123

(2)

3.2 ITER: Role and Characteristics

125

(1)

3.3 Theory and Modeling

126

(1)

4 Development Plans and Design Studies

126

(2)

5 Summary

128

(3)

References

129

(2)

8 Progress Toward Inertial Fusion Energy

131

(34)

Erik Storm

1 Introduction

131

(1)

2 Review of Basic ICF Physics

132

(10)

2.1 DT Burn Physics

134

(1)

2.2 Compression and Central Ignition

135

(1)

2.3 Fluid instabilities, Mix, and Low-Entropy Implosions

136

(1)

2.4 Indirect- and Direct-Drive Approaches to ICF

137

(3)

2.5 Alternative Ignition Concepts

140

(2)

3 Progress Toward Ignition and High-Gain ICF

142

(4)

4 IFE Systems

146

(9)

4.1 Review of IFE Basics

146

(4)

4.2 Review of IFE Subsystems - Targets, Driver, Chamber, Balance of Plant

150

(3)

4.3 Self-Consistent IFE Systems

153

(2)

5 Progress Toward Laser IFE Technologies

155

(6)

6 Conclusion

161

(4)

Further Suggested Readings

161

(4)

9 Energy from Photovoltaics

165

(30)

Ignacio Rey-Stolle

1 Introduction

165

(1)

2 Solar Radiation

166

(3)

2.1 Fundamentals

166

(1)

2.2 Basic PV Terminology and Notation for Solar Radiation

167

(1)

2.3 Components of Solar Radiation

167

(1)

2.4 World Distribution of Solar Radiation

168

(1)

2.5 Solar Radiation Collected by PV Systems

168

(1)

3 Solar Cells

169

(5)

3.1 Definition

169

(1)

3.2 Basic Solar Cell Equations and Equivalent Circuits

169

(1)

3.2.1 Simple equivalent circuit for a solar cell and I-V characteristic

169

(1)

3.2.2 General equivalent circuit for a solar cell and I-V characteristic

170

(1)

3.3 The I-V Curve of a Solar Cell

170

(1)

3.3.1 General look and key parameters

170

(1)

3.3.2 Effect of variations in series and parallel resistance on the I-V curve

171

(1)

3.3.3 Effect of variations in irradiance on the I-V curve

172

(1)

3.3.4 Effect of variations in temperature

172

(1)

3.3.5 Standard test conditions for solar cells

173

(1)

3.4 Overview of Solar Cell Technologies

173

(1)

4 PV Modules

174

(5)

4.1 Fundamental Principles

174

(1)

4.1.1 Concept and mission

174

(1)

4.1.2 Construction

174

(2)

4.2 Characteristic Equation and I-V Curve

176

(1)

4.2.1 I-V characteristic of a PV module

176

(1)

4.3 Electrical Performance

177

(1)

4.3.1 Standard test conditions

177

(1)

4.3.2 Factors affecting the electrical power of solar panels under real operation

177

(1)

4.3.3 Modeling the equilibrium cell temperature in a PV module

178

(1)

4.3.4 Electrical power of solar panels at any irradiance and temperature

179

(1)

4.3.5 Electrical energy from a PV module

179

(1)

5 PV Arrays and Systems

179

(6)

5.1 Basic Definitions

179

(1)

5.2 Balance of System Components of PV Systems

180

(1)

5.2.1 Power conditioning

180

(1)

5.2.2 Storage

180

(1)

5.2.3 Electric components

180

(1)

5.2.4 Mounting structures

180

(1)

5.3 Types of PV Systems

181

(1)

5.4 Designing a PV System

182

(1)

5.4.1 Location

182

(1)

5.4.2 Orientation and tilt

182

(1)

5.4.3 Sizing

183

(1)

5.5 PV System Performance

183

(1)

5.5.1 Output power of PV systems

183

(1)

5.5.2 Energy rating of PV systems

184

(1)

5.5.3 Alternative (simpler) energy rating of PV systems

184

(1)

6 Uses and World Market of PV Solar Energy

185

(3)

6.1 Overview on the Uses of PV Energy

185

(1)

6.2 World PV Market

186

(1)

6.2.1 Size and historic evolution of the world PV market

186

(1)

6.2.2 PV cell production by technology

187

(1)

6.2.3 Evolution of PV module costs and PV electricity

187

(1)

7 Material Usage and Environmental Impact of PV Solar Energy

188

(7)

7.1 The Value Chain of PV Technology

188

(1)

7.2 Material Usage of PV Technology

189

(1)

7.3 Energy Payback Time of PV Systems

189

(1)

7.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions of PV Systems

190

(1)

7.5 Operational Hazards of PV Systems

190

(1)

7.6 PV Module Decommissioning and Recycling

191

(1)

References

192

(3)

10 Concentrating Solar Thermal Power

195

(30)

Wes Stein

1 Introduction

195

(1)

2 Solar Radiation and Concentration

196

(1)

3 Receiving and Absorbing Solar Radiation

197

(2)

3.1 Energy Balance

197

(1)

3.2 Selective Surface Theory

198

(1)

4 Types of Solar Collectors for Power and Fuels

199

(12)

4.1 Solar Pond

200

(1)

4.2 Solar Chimney

200

(2)

4.3 Parabolic Trough

202

(1)

4.3.1 Heat transfer fluid

203

(2)

4.4 Linear Fresnel

205

(2)

4.5 Central Receiver (Power Tower)

207

(1)

4.5.1 Heliostats and field layout

207

(1)

4.5.2 Receivers

208

(1)

4.6 Dish Concentrators

208

(3)

5 Thermal Storage

211

(4)

5.1 Two-Tank Molten Salt

211

(1)

5.2 Single Tank Molten Salt

212

(1)

5.3 Alternative Thermal Storage Options

212

(1)

5.4 Thermochemical Storage

213

(2)

5.5 Cost Reduction of Thermal Storage Through Higher Temperatures

215

(1)

6 Concentrating Solar Power Systems

215

(3)

6.1 Rankine Cycle

216

(1)

6.2 Brayton Cycle

216

(2)

6.3 Stirling Cycle

218

(1)

7 CSP and Solar Fuels

218

(2)

8 CSP in the Market

220

(2)

9 Conclusions

222

(3)

References

222

(3)

11 Biomass

225

(20)

Mark Downing

Anthony F. Turhollow Jr.

1 Introduction

225

(1)

2 Ethanol

226

(1)

3 Ethanol Production from Sugarcane in Brazil

226

(2)

4 Biodiesel

228

(1)

5 Thermal Processes

228

(2)

5.1 Pyrolysis

229

(1)

5.2 Gasification

229

(1)

5.3 Combustion

230

(1)

6 Biological Processes

230

(3)

6.1 Anaerobic Digestion

230

(1)

6.2 Fermentation

231

(2)

6.3 Algae

233

(1)

7 Dedicated Energy Crops

233

(6)

7.1 Switchgrass

233

(1)

7.2 Sorghum

234

(1)

7.3 Miscanthus

235

(1)

7.4 Sugarcane and Energy Cane

236

(1)

7.5 Hybrid Poplar

236

(1)

7.6 Willow

237

(1)

7.7 Eucalyptus

238

(1)

7.8 Oilseeds

238

(1)

8 Future Use of Biofuels

239

(6)

References

239

(4)

Appendix

243

(2)

12 Geothermal Energy

245

(30)

Gordon Bloomquist

John Lund

Magnus Gehringer

1 Introduction to Geothermal Energy and Its Utilization

245

(2)

2 World Overview of Utilization

247

(5)

2.1 Direct Use of Geothermal Resources

247

(2)

2.2 Geothermal Direct Utilization Technologies

249

(1)

2.2.1 District cooling

250

(1)

2.3 Economics of Direct-Use Systems

250

(1)

2.4 Future Utilization Scenario for Power Generation and Direct Use

251

(1)

3 Geothermal Geology

252

(1)

4 Development of Geothermal Power Generation Projects

253

(5)

4.1 Exploration

255

(1)

4.2 Drilling and Well Testing

256

(1)

4.2.1 Well testing

257

(1)

5 Geothermal Power Generation Technologies

258

(6)

5.1 Flash Plants, Condensing Units

258

(2)

5.2 Binary Cycles

260

(1)

5.3 Additional Technologies

261

(1)

5.4 Power Plant Condensers

262

(1)

5.5 Power Plant Cooling

262

(1)

5.6 Constructing Power Plants According to the Stepwise Approach

263

(1)

5.7 Determination of Power Plant Size by Demand Analysis

263

(1)

6 Economics of Power Generation

264

(4)

6.1 Risk/Cost Profiles and Financing Options

266

(1)

6.2 Incremental Costs

267

(1)

7 Other Geothermal Resource Types and Applications

268

(2)

7.1 Geopressured Resources

268

(1)

7.2 Co-Produced Resources

268

(1)

7.3 Enhanced Geothermal Systems

268

(1)

7.4 Mineral Extraction

269

(1)

7.5 Geothermal Heat Pumps

270

(1)

8 Environmental Impacts, Mitigation Measures, and Benefits

270

(5)

References

272

(3)

13 Hydropower and Pumped Storage

275

(32)

Torbjornm K. Nielsen

1 Introduction

275

(1)

2 Global Hydropower Resources

276

(1)

3 Worldwide Use of Hydropower

277

(1)

4 Hydropower and Turbines

278

(15)

4.1 Basic Equations

278

(2)

4.2 Hydraulic Loss

280

(2)

4.3 Turbine Types

282

(3)

4.4 Turbine Theory

285

(2)

4.5 Efficiency

287

(2)

4.6 Classification of Turbines

289

(1)

4.7 Cavitation

290

(2)

4.8 Technical Advances in Turbine Design

292

(1)

5 Hydropower Plant Performance

293

(2)

5.1 Steady State Performance

294

(1)

5.2 Governing Power

294

(1)

5.3 Transient Behavior

295

(1)

6 Small-Scale Hydropower

295

(2)

6.1 Cross-Flow Turbines

296

(1)

6.2 Turgo Turbine

297

(1)

6.3 Centrifugal Pumps Run as Turbines

297

(1)

7 Issues with Hydropower as a Future Component of Renewable Energy

297

(1)

8 Pump Storage Plants

298

(9)

8.1 Introduction

298

(1)

8.2 Separate Pump and Turbine

299

(3)

8.3 Reversible Pump Turbine

302

(2)

8.4 Control and Electrical Interface

304

(1)

References

304

(1)

Appendix

305

(2)

14 Wind Energy

307

(36)

Jos Beurskens

Arno Brand

1 Introduction

307

(1)

2 Wind Resource

308

(7)

2.1 The Origin of the Wind and its Variations

308

(1)

2.2 Power of the Wind

308

(2)

2.3 Variability of the Wind

310

(3)

2.4 World and Regional Wind Potential

313

(2)

3 Wind Turbines

315

(10)

3.1 Drag Machines and Lift Machines

315

(1)

3.2 Rotor Characteristics

316

(2)

3.3 Energy Conversion and Control

318

(2)

3.4 Power Curves and Energy Output

320

(3)

3.5 Concepts and Structural Aspects

323

(2)

4 Wakes and Clusters

325

(4)

4.1 Clusters of Wind Turbines: Wind Farms

325

(1)

4.2 Single Wind Turbine Wakes

326

(1)

4.3 Internal Wakes Inside a Wind Farm

327

(1)

4.4 Wind Farm Wakes

327

(1)

4.5 Wind Farm Clusters

328

(1)

5 Grid Integration

329

(5)

5.1 Introduction

329

(1)

5.2 Grid Requirements

330

(1)

5.2.1 System balance

330

(1)

5.2.2 Program imbalance

330

(1)

5.3 The Natural Variability and the Limited Predictability of Wind Energy

331

(1)

5.3.1 Variability

331

(2)

5.3.2 Predictability

333

(1)

6 Market Developments

334

(9)

References

339

(4)

15 Ocean Energy

343

(16)

Ian Bryden

1 Introduction

343

(1)

2 Wave Energy

344

(5)

2.1 The Technology

344

(2)

2.2 Resource

346

(1)

2.3 The Status

347

(2)

3 Tidal Current Energy

349

(4)

3.1 The Technology

349

(1)

3.2 The Resource

350

(2)

3.3 The Status

352

(1)

4 Tidal Entrainment

353

(6)

4.1 The Technology

353

(1)

4.1.1 Single basin tidal barrage schemes

354

(2)

4.1.2 Double basin systems

356

(1)

4.2 The Resource

356

(1)

4.3 The Status

357

(1)

References

358

(1)

16 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

359

(14)

Gerard C. Nihous

1 Basic Concept of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

359

(6)

2 Available OTEC Resources

365

(1)

3 Advantages and Disadvantages of OTEC

366

(4)

4 Status of OTEC Development

370

(3)

References

371

(2)

17 Capacitive Electric Storage

373

(32)

Lu Wei

Gleb Yushin

1 Introduction

373

(2)

2 Dielectric Capacitors

375

(1)

3 Electrolytic Capacitors

376

(2)

4 Electrochemical Capacitors

378

(12)

4.1 EDLCs

378

(5)

4.2 Pseudocapacitors

383

(1)

4.2.1 Pseudocapacitors with surface compounds

383

(1)

4.2.2 Pseudocapacitors with metal oxides

384

(2)

4.2.3 Pseudocapacitors with conducting polymers

386

(1)

4.3 Hybrid Capacitors

387

(3)

5 Promising Applications of Electrochemical Capacitors

390

(3)

6 Conclusions and Outlook

393

(12)

References

393

(12)

18 Batteries

405

(22)

Habiballah Rahimi-Eichi

Mo-Yuen Chow

1 Electrochemical Structure of a Battery

405

(2)

2 Battery Technologies and Applications

407

(8)

2.1 Primary Batteries

407

(1)

2.2 Secondary Batteries

407

(8)

3 Batteries Compared with Other Energy-Storage Technologies

415

(2)

4 Directions and Challenges of Battery Technology

417

(7)

4.1 Battery Technology Goals for PHEV/PEVs

417

(2)

4.2 Peak Power

419

(1)

4.3 Energy Capacity

420

(1)

4.4 Lifetime

421

(1)

4.5 Safety

422

(1)

4.6 Cost

422

(1)

4.7 Battery Technologies for the Smart Grid

423

(1)

4.8 Battery Management System

423

(1)

5 Summary

424

(3)

References

424

(3)

19 Fuel Cells and the Hydrogen Economy

427

(28)

John T.S. Irvine

Gael P.G. Corre

Xiaoxiang Xu

1 Introduction

427

(2)

2 Fuel Cell Types

429

(1)

3 Fuels

430

(5)

3.1 Hydrogen

430

(2)

3.2 Fuel Processing

432

(3)

4 Fuel Cell Applications

435

(1)

5 Proton-Conducting Electrolyte Fuel Cells

436

(3)

5.1 Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells

436

(1)

5.2 Solid Acid Fuel Cells

437

(1)

5.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

437

(2)

6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

439

(6)

6.1 Basic Definitions

439

(1)

6.2 History of SOFC

440

(1)

6.3 Characteristics

441

(1)

6.4 Design

442

(1)

6.5 Materials

443

(2)

7 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

445

(1)

8 Efficiency

445

(7)

8.1 Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells

445

(2)

8.2 Fuel Cell Efficiency

447

(1)

8.2.1 Heating efficiency

447

(1)

8.2.2 Thermodynamic efficiency

447

(1)

8.2.3 Current efficiency

448

(1)

8.2.4 Voltage efficiency

449

(1)

8.2.5 Internal resistance

450

(1)

8.2.6 Charge transfer or activation polarization

450

(1)

8.2.7 Diffusion or concentration polarization

451

(1)

9 Summary

452

(3)

References

452

(3)

20 Electrical Grids

455

(26)

Roisin Duignan

Mark O'Malley

1 Introduction

455

(1)

2 Power Grids

455

(6)

2.1 Electric Power Infrastructure

456

(1)

2.2 Operation, Planning, and Service Restoration

456

(5)

3 Electric Power Grid Analysis Tools and Fundamentals

461

(4)

3.1 Phasors Fundamentals

461

(1)

3.2 Alternating Current and Direct Current

462

(1)

3.3 Power Fundamentals

462

(1)

3.4 Phase Circuit Fundamentals

463

(2)

3.5 Electric Power Fundamentals

465

(1)

4 Transformers

465

(4)

4.1 Transformers: Introduction

466

(1)

4.2 Ideal Transformer

466

(1)

4.3 Real Transformer

466

(1)

4.4 Transformer Core Losses

467

(1)

4.5 Determination of Real Transformer Circuit Parameters

468

(1)

4.6 Transformer Cooling and Winding Connections

468

(1)

5 Synchronous Machines

469

(2)

5.1 Synchronous Machines: Introduction

469

(1)

5.2 Synchronous Motor Operation

469

(2)

5.3 Synchronous Machines Example -- Pumped Storage Schemes

471

(1)

6 Transmission of Electricity

471

(6)

6.1 Electricity Transmission Fundamentals

471

(1)

6.2 Transmission Line Fundamentals

472

(1)

6.3 Power Flows on Transmission Lines

473

(1)

6.4 Transmission Line Efficiencies

474

(1)

6.5 Transmission Interconnection

474

(1)

6.6 Direct Current Transmission

475

(2)

7 Power Systems Operations

477

(1)

7.1 Unit Commitment

477

(1)

7.2 Economic Dispatch

477

(1)

7.3 Electricity Market Environment

477

(1)

8 Renewables and the Electrical Power Grid

477

(4)

8.1 Renewables and the Electrical Power Grid: Introduction

477

(1)

8.2 Renewable Example - Wind Turbines

478

(2)

References

480

(1)

21 Energy Use and Energy Conservation

481

(30)

V. Ismet Ugursal

1 Energy Use: Trends and Implications

481

(15)

2 Energy Management and Conservation

496

(15)

2.1 Energy Audit

498

(8)

2.2 Energy Conservation Opportunities -- Examples

506

(3)

References

509

(1)

Further Suggested Readings

510

(1)

22 The Earth's Energy Balance

511

(26)

Gerard M. Crawley

1 Introduction

511

(1)

2 Black Body Radiation

512

(2)

3 Albedo

514

(1)

4 Calculation of the Earth's Temperature at the Upper Atmosphere

515

(1)

5 Effect of the Atmosphere on the Earth's Surface Temperature

516

(6)

5.1 Composition of the Earth's Atmosphere

516

(1)

5.2 Radiation Balance for Short- and Long-Wavelength Radiation

517

(2)

5.3 Abundances of Greenhouse Gases

519

(3)

6 Measurements of Earth's Temperature

522

(2)

7 Sea Ice Extent

524

(1)

8 Sea Level Rise

525

(2)

9 Climate Predictions

527

(10)

9.1 Global Temperature Projections

529

(1)

9.2 Sea-Level Projections

530

(2)

9.3 Glacier and Ice Sheet Projections

532

(1)

References

533

(4)

Index

537

(10)

About the Contributors

547

Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9789814343527_pe.html

E-raamat: World Scientific Handbook of Energy [World Scientific e-raamat]

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