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E-raamat: Bentonite Clay: Environmental Properties and Applications [Taylor & Francis e-raamat]

(Sweco Infrastructure AB, Norrköping, Sweden)
  • Formaat: 360 pages, 51 Tables, black and white; 220 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 09-Jun-2015
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-13: 9780429159886
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  • Taylor & Francis e-raamat
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Bentonite Clay: Environmental Properties and ApplicationsSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: 360 pages, 51 Tables, black and white; 220 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 09-Jun-2015
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-13: 9780429159886
Teised raamatud teemal:
Taylor & Francis e-raamatudRohkem infot Taylor & Francis e-raamatute kohta
Raamatu kodulehekülg: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429159886
Studies the Environmental, Cosmetic, and Pharmaceutical Applications of Bentonite ClayBentonite clay, of which members of the smectite family of clay minerals are particularly important, has proven to be effective in sealing off wastes from groundwater.Bentonite Clay: Environmental Properties and Applications explores the mineralogy of clays in general and of smectites in particular that represent challenging conditions for geotechnical professionals responsible for earth dam construction, the foundations of roads and buildings, and the long-term isolation of chemical and radioactive wastes. The author, a world-renowned expert on the subject, places special emphasis on the environmental behavior of bentonite clay when focused on the isolation of hazardous wastes and also considers its use in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Based on classical literature and current research and development, this text provides an in-depth introduction to bentonite soil, explains the origin of smectite-rich clays, and pinpoints where they can be found. The book describes the interaction of expandable clay minerals, gas, and fluids, followed by a description of the physical and chemical properties of smectite clay saturated with water or chemical solutions. It also provides relevant findings and conclusions concerning the function of bentonite-based sealing repositories for dangerous waste. This text:Describes the constitution of smectite minerals as a basis for understanding the behavior of smectite clays and their performance in the isolation of hazardous wasteFactors in the longevity of smectite clays in bentonite beds and in the form of canister-embedding buffers in repositories for deep geological disposal of highly radioactive waste (HLW)Covers the design principles for clay seals and considers their function in the isolation of waste and redirecting groundwater flowBentonite Clay: Environmental Properties and Applications documents the origin, properties, and characteristics of bentonite and its uses. A resource for researchers, practitioners, regulators, and policy makers, the text examines the use of clay in hazardous waste and nuclear waste management and provides readers with detailed descriptions of related technical solutions.
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
Author xxi
Chapter 1 Introduction 1(8)
1.1 Main Issues
1(1)
1.2 Smectite Clay-The Muddiest Type of Soft Clay
1(1)
1.3 Stress-Strain Problems
2(2)
1.4 Preparation of Smectite Clay for Sealing Purposes
4(1)
1.5 Quality Issues
5(2)
1.6 Performance Tests
7(1)
References
8(1)
Chapter 2 Origin and Occurrence of Smectite Clays: Bentonites 9(14)
2.1 Origin of Smectite Clays
9(1)
2.2 Where Are All These Famous and Magic Clays?
9(9)
2.2.1 North America
9(2)
2.2.1.1 The United States
10(1)
2.2.1.2 Canada
11(1)
2.2.2 South America
11(1)
2.2.3 Central America
11(1)
2.2.3.1 Mexico
11(1)
2.2.4 Africa
12(1)
2.2.5 Middle East
12(1)
2.2.6 Asia
12(2)
2.2.6.1 China
12(1)
2.2.6.2 India
13(1)
2.2.6.3 Japan
13(1)
2.2.7 Europe
14(12)
2.2.7.1 Germany
14(1)
2.2.7.2 Denmark
15(1)
2.2.7.3 Italy
15(1)
2.2.7.4 Spain
16(2)
2.2.7.5 Czech Republic
18(1)
2.2.7.6 Greece
18(1)
2.3 Potential Smectite Resources
18(1)
2.4 Are New Smectites Being Formed Today?
19(1)
2.5 Quality of Natural Smectite Clays for Practical Use
19(1)
2.6 Conclusion
20(1)
References
20(3)
Chapter 3 Nature of Smectites 23(14)
3.1 Basics
23(1)
3.2 Smectite Family
23(2)
3.3 Crystal Constitution of Smectites
25(1)
3.4 Chemical Composition of Natural Smectite Clays
26(2)
3.4.1 Smectite Component
26(2)
3.5 Mineral Composition of Natural Smectite Clays
28(1)
3.5.1 Smectite-Rich Clays
28(1)
3.5.2 Clays with Moderate and Low Smectite Contents
28(1)
3.6 Role of Clay Particle Charge
29(7)
3.6.1 Basics and Practicalities
29(2)
3.6.2 CEC, Anion Exchange Capacity, and Specific Surface Area
31(1)
3.6.3 Mechanisms in Cation Exchange
32(1)
3.6.4 Role of Anions
32(1)
3.6.5 Phosphorus and Nitrogen
33(1)
3.6.6 Sulfur
33(1)
3.6.7 Organic Content
34(1)
3.6.8 Special Role of Organic Elements
34(4)
3.6.8.1 Bacteria
34(1)
3.6.8.2 Identification of Smectite Minerals
34(2)
3.7 Conclusion
36(1)
References
36(1)
Chapter 4 Clay-Fluid-Gas Systems 37(50)
4.1 Overview
37(1)
4.2 Physicochemical Background
38(4)
4.2.1 Energy Considerations, Soil-Water Potentials
38(2)
4.2.2 Hydration of Smectite Clay
40(2)
4.3 Hydraulic Conductivity
42(25)
4.3.1 Definition of Hydraulic Conductivity
42(1)
4.3.2 Determination of the Hydraulic Conductivity in the Laboratory
43(1)
4.3.3 Microstructural Implications
44(2)
4.3.4 Role of Hydraulic Gradients
46(13)
4.3.4.1 Test Principles and Theory
46(1)
4.3.4.2 Experimental Proof of the Impact of the Hydraulic Gradient
47(4)
4.3.4.3 Piping and Erosion
51(1)
4.3.4.4 Experimental Evidence
52(3)
4.3.4.5 Impact of Hydraulic Gradients on the Permeation of Water-Saturated Clay Seals
55(4)
4.3.5 Impact of Saltwater on the Hydraulic Conductivity
59(1)
4.3.6 Criteria
60(4)
4.3.7 Impact of Smectite Content on the Hydraulic Conductivity of Mixed Soils
64(3)
4.3.7.1 Mixed Clay and Coarser Material
64(2)
4.3.7.2 Natural Soils
66(1)
4.3.7.3 Hydraulic Conductivity of Unsaturated Clay
66(1)
4.4 Gas Conductivity
67(4)
4.4.1 Basics
67(1)
4.4.2 Determination of Gas Transport Capacity
68(3)
4.4.2.1 Background
68(3)
4.4.2.2 Laboratory Technique
71(1)
4.4.3 Modeling of Gas Penetration Using Capillary Analogs
71(1)
4.5 Ion Diffusion
71(9)
4.5.1 Definitions
71(1)
4.5.2 Mechanisms and Basic Relationships
72(3)
4.5.3 Role of the Microstructure
75(1)
4.5.4 Impact of the Microstructural Constitution on Ion Diffusion
76(2)
4.5.5 Test Principles and Theory
78(3)
4.5.5.1 Technique
78(2)
4.5.5.2 Role of Electrical Double Layers for Ion Diffusion
80(1)
4.6 Colloid Transport
80(1)
4.7 Microbiological Filtering
80(1)
4.8 Heat Transport-Thermal Properties
81(1)
4.8.1 Overview
81(1)
4.8.2 Influence of Water Content
81(1)
4.8.3 Influence of Smectite Content
81(1)
4.8.4 Influence of Stress and Temperature
82(1)
4.9 Couplings, Dependencies, and Interdependencies
82(2)
References
84(3)
Chapter 5 Physical Performance of Smectite Clay Seals: Prediction and Reality 87(78)
5.1 Introduction
87(1)
5.2 Application of Concepts of Soil Mechanics to Smectite Clay
87(7)
5.2.1 Effective Stress Concept
87(2)
5.2.2 Role of the Effective Stress for the Physical Stability of Clay Seals
89(1)
5.2.3 Stress-Strain Definitions and Parameters
90(4)
5.2.3.1 Compression Modulus K
91(1)
5.2.3.2 Shear Stress Modulus G
91(1)
5.2.3.3 Oedometer Modulus M
91(1)
5.2.3.4 Compression Properties
92(1)
5.2.3.5 Time Dependence
92(1)
5.2.3.6 Shear Strain
93(1)
5.3 Role and Mechanisms of Consolidation and Creep
94(7)
5.3.1 Cases
94(1)
5.3.2 Consolidation
95(1)
5.3.3 Shear Strain by Creep
95(6)
5.4 Fundamentals of Thermal Conditions and Performance
101(2)
5.4.1 Definitions and Parameters
101(1)
5.4.2 Influence of Temperature
102(1)
5.5 Evolution of Clay Seals
103(4)
5.5.1 Hydration
103(2)
5.5.2 Forslind-Jacobsson Model
105(2)
5.6 Clay Microstructure and Its Role for the Stress-Strain Behavior of Smectite Clays
107(7)
5.6.1 Scale Dependence
107(2)
5.6.2 Impact of Heating
109(3)
5.6.3 Microstructural Modeling of Smectite-Rich Clay
112(2)
5.7 Effect of Combined Wetting and Heating of Clay Seals-The Buffer Case
114(14)
5.7.1 Practical Cases
114(1)
5.7.2 Hydration of Smectite-Rich Buffer Clay under Temperature Gradients
114(4)
5.7.3 Physical Processes Taking Place in Buffer Clay
118(1)
5.7.4 Evolution of the Buffer-Temperature
118(1)
5.7.5 Evolution of the Buffer-Expansion and Consolidation under Hot Conditions
119(4)
5.7.6 Modeling of the Hydration of Buffer Clay
123(1)
5.7.7 Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical-Chemical Processes in Buffer Clay-Salt Accumulation
124(4)
5.8 Concepts and Techniques for Isolating Moderately Hazardous Waste
128(14)
5.8.1 Landfills
128(5)
5.8.2 Underground Disposal in Shallow Repositories
133(4)
5.8.3 Underground Disposal in Abandoned Mines
137(5)
5.9 Concepts for Isolating Highly Radioactive Waste
142(9)
5.9.1 Medium-Deep Repositories
142(5)
5.9.1.1 The KBS-3V Concept
142(5)
5.9.2 Steep Holes with Two or Several Canisters (Case A)
147(1)
5.9.3 Big Cavern with Numerous Canisters (Case B-1)
147(1)
5.9.4 Tunnels or Drifts with Large Clay-Isolated Concrete Containers (Case B-2)
147(1)
5.9.5 Inclined Holes. (Case C)
148(2)
5.9.6 Very Long Holes (Case D)
150(1)
5.10 Very Deep Holes
151(2)
5.11 Correlation of Hydraulic and Mechanical Performances of Clay Seals
153(4)
5.11.1 Piping and Erosion of Clay Seals
153(2)
5.11.2 VDH Concept
155(1)
5.11.2.1 Clay Mud
155(1)
5.11.2.2 Clay Block Seals
155(1)
5.11.2.3 Interaction of Mud and Blocks
156(1)
5.11.3 Usefulness of Rock for Hosting Repositories
156(1)
5.12 Concluding Remarks
157(3)
References
160(5)
Chapter 6 Chemical Processes Involved in and Longevity of Smectite Buffer 165(46)
6.1 Chemical Stability of Smectite Clay for Waste Isolation
165(3)
6.1.1 Our Starting Point
165(1)
6.1.2 Natural Analogs
166(2)
6.1.2.1 Conversion of Smectite to Nonexpanding Minerals
166(2)
6.1.2.2 Kinnekulle-A Comforting Case?
168(1)
6.2 Experimental Evidence
168(38)
6.2.1 Overview
168(1)
6.2.2 Stripa Project Laboratory Study
169(5)
6.2.2.1 Test Program and Techniques
170(1)
6.2.2.2 Summary of Results
171(3)
6.2.3 SKB-ANDRA Study
174(2)
6.2.4 RMN Study
176(5)
6.2.5 Swedish-Czech-Chinese University Study
181(5)
6.2.5.1 Montmorillonite-Dominated MX-80
184(1)
6.2.5.2 Saponite-Dominated Clay
184(2)
6.2.5.3 Mixed-Layer I/S Clay
186(1)
6.2.6 SKB Field Tests
186(4)
6.2.7 Matter of Stiffening
190(5)
6.2.8 Interaction of Smectite Clay and Other Components
195(11)
6.2.8.1 Smectite Clay Contacting Copper Metal
196(1)
6.2.8.2 Smectite Clay Contacting Iron and Steel
197(1)
6.2.8.3 I/S Mixed-Layer Smectite Clay Contacting Concrete
198(3)
6.2.8.4 Montmorillonite-Rich Clay Contacting Low-pH Concrete
201(5)
6.3 Summary Respecting Smectite Chemistry and Mineralogy
206(2)
6.3.1 Overview
206(1)
6.3.2 Geochemical Modeling
207(1)
6.4 Concluding Remarks
208(1)
References
208(3)
Chapter 7 Processing of Clays and Preparation of Seals 211(30)
7.1 Overview
211(1)
7.2 Block Preparation
212(12)
7.2.1 Raw Material
212(1)
7.2.2 Achievable Block Density
212(2)
7.2.3 Preparation of Dense Blocks of Smectite Clay
214(2)
7.2.4 Blocks Prepared by Uniaxial Compression
216(2)
7.2.5 Blocks Prepared by Isotropic Compression
218(1)
7.2.6 Microstructural Constitution of Compacted Smectite Clay
218(6)
7.3 Clay Liners, Materials, and Principles of Construction
224(11)
7.3.1 Principles of Design and Construction
224(1)
7.3.2 Criteria
224(2)
7.3.3 Principle of Placement and Compaction
226(7)
7.3.4 Microstructural Constitution of Compacted Smectite Clay Liners
233(1)
7.3.5 Microstructural Modeling of Smectite Clay
233(2)
7.4 Clays for Rock Grouting
235(4)
7.4.1 Use of Grouts with respect to Their Physical Stability
235(3)
7.4.1.1 Argillaceous Cement Grouts
235(1)
7.4.1.2 Role of Palygorskite
236(2)
7.4.2 Penetrability and Sealing Function of Clay-Based Grouts
238(1)
7.5 General Aspects on Selection and Use of Smectite Clays for Waste Isolation
239(1)
References
239(2)
Chapter 8 Environmental Behavior 241(40)
8.1 Waste Isolation by Use of Clay
241(1)
8.2 VDH-Ostrich Philosophy or a Serious Alternative for HLW Disposal?
242(4)
8.2.1 Background
242(2)
8.2.2 Rock Conditions
244(2)
8.2.3 Temperature Conditions
246(1)
8.2.4 Conditions Respecting the Chemical Composition of the Groundwater
246(1)
8.3 Sealing Components
246(15)
8.3.1 Overview
246(1)
8.3.2 Waste Canisters
247(7)
8.3.2.1 Steel Canisters
248(3)
8.3.2.2 Mud Performance
251(1)
8.3.2.3 Casing Performance
251(2)
8.3.2.4 Supercontainer Performance
253(1)
8.3.2.5 Canister Performance
253(1)
8.3.2.6 Buffer Clay Performance
253(1)
8.3.3 Concrete
254(1)
8.3.4 Practical Aspects-Placeability
255(3)
8.3.5 Long-Term Function of Clay Components in the Sealed and Deployment Zones
258(1)
8.3.6 Long-Term Function of Concrete Seals
259(1)
8.3.7 Impact of Gamma Radiation
259(1)
8.3.8 Unexpected Events
259(1)
8.3.9 Environmental Impact
260(1)
8.4 SARC-The Poor Man's Solution
261(13)
8.4.1 Background
261(2)
8.4.2 Steps in Siting of SARC
263(4)
8.4.3 Constitution of a SARC Repository for HLW
267(5)
8.4.3.1 General Conditions
267(2)
8.4.3.2 Bottom Bed
269(3)
8.4.3.3 Containers and Canisters
272(1)
8.4.3.4 Clay Block Liner
272(1)
8.4.4 General Scenario of a SARC Repository
272(2)
8.4.4.1 Function of SARC
272(1)
8.4.4.2 Bottom Bed
273(1)
8.4.4.3 Clay Block Liner
273(1)
8.4.4.4 Containers and Canisters
273(1)
8.4.5 Environmental Impact
274(1)
8.5 Borehole Sealing
274(4)
References
278(3)
Chapter 9 Pharmacology and Cosmetics 281(30)
9.1 Origin of Life
281(1)
9.2 Interaction of Smectite Clay and Organic Molecules
282(6)
9.3 Interaction of Clays and Organics in Medical Treatment
288(10)
9.3.1 Issues Considered
288(1)
9.3.2 Clays in Natural Medicine
288(1)
9.3.3 Clay for Healing Wounds
289(2)
9.3.4 Extraction of Hazardous Elements Poisoning the Human Body
291(5)
9.3.4.1 Principle
291(1)
9.3.4.2 Preference of Clay Minerals
292(1)
9.3.4.3 Interaction of Clay Minerals and Cells in the Gastric System
293(2)
9.3.4.4 Radionuclides
295(1)
9.3.5 Potential to Cure Cancer
296(1)
9.3.6 Summing Up on Clays in Modern Medicine
297(1)
9.4 Sun Protection
298(6)
9.4.1 Pilot Study of the Performance of Organic- and Clay-Based Sun Creams
298(4)
9.4.1.1 Tested Creams
298(1)
9.4.1.2 Testing
298(1)
9.4.1.3 Results
299(2)
9.4.1.4 Conclusions
301(1)
9.4.2 Comprehensive Studies
302(2)
9.4.2.1 Tested Creams
302(1)
9.4.2.2 Testing
302(1)
9.4.2.3 Results
303(1)
9.5 Clay in Cosmetology
304(3)
9.5.1 Background
304(1)
9.5.2 Interaction of Clay Minerals and Epidermis
304(1)
9.5.3 Rheology
305(1)
9.5.4 Clay Candidates
305(1)
9.5.5 Density and Consistency of Smectite Creams with and without Organic Liquid
305(2)
9.6 Summary of Fundamental Properties of Smectitic Creams on Skin
307(1)
References
308(3)
Appendix: Symbols and Definitions 311(12)
Index 323
Roland Pusch received a PhD in soil mechanics in 1962 from the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden, and a PhD in geology in 1970 from Stockholm University, Sweden. He was an associate professor in soil mechanics and foundation engineering at Chalmers University of Technology (19671974), Sweden, and a professor at the Technical University at Luleå (19741982), Sweden. Dr. Puschs academic career was paralleled by work in major consulting companies. The author of five books, including Microstructure of Smectite Clays and Engineering Performance (together with R. N. Yong) for Taylor & Francis, he has also published numerous papers.
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