E-raamat: Environmental Xenobiotics [Taylor & Francis e-raamat]

Preface xix(2) Mervyn Richardson List of contributors xxi(4) Abbreviations and acronyms xxv(6) Acknowledgements xxxi(2) Definitions xxxiii SECTION 1 PROLOG 1(8)
Chapter 1 Prolog 3(6) Mervyn Richardson 1.1 Introduction 3(1) 1.2 Chemical analysis 3(1) 1.3 Training 4(1) 1.4 Mal-use of chemicals 5(2) 1.4.1 Pesticides 5(1) 1.4.2 Colorants 5(1) 1.4.3 Surfactants 6(1) 1.4.4 Solvents 6(1) 1.4.5 Pharmaceutical and veterinary chemicals 6(1) 1.5 A way forward 7(1) 1.6 References 7(2) SECTION 2 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS 9(112)
Chapter 2 Factors Altering the Severity of Adverse Effects Induced in Animals and People by Environmental Xenobiotics 11(10) Barbara W. Kemppainen Jayant Vodela 2.1 Introduction 11(1) 2.1.1 Risk assessment 11(1) 2.1.2 Chemical mixtures 12(1) 2.2 Definitions of interactions 12(1) 2.3 Mechanistic basis for interactions 13(2) 2.3.1 Toxicokinetics 13(1) 2.3.2 Toxicodynamics 14(1) 2.4 Effects of exposure scenario 15(2) 2.4.1 Route 15(1) 2.4.2 Duration and level of exposure 16(1) 2.5 Conclusions 17(1) 2.6 Acknowledgements 18(1) 2.7 References 18(3)
Chapter 3 Xenobiotic Mechanisms of Pesticides and Fertilizers in Soil--A Review 21(26) Gyorgy Fuleky Zsuzsa Pasztor 3.1 Introduction 21(1) 3.2 Fate of pesticides in soil 21(2) 3.3 Biochemical pathways for pesticide degradation 23(9) 3.3.1 Effects of soil microbiological activity on pesticides and vice-versa 25(4) 3.3.2 Effects of soil enzymatic activity on pesticides and vice-versa 29(3) 3.4 Effects of pesticides on non-target soil organisms and soil biological processes 32(4) 3.5 Fertilizers and heavy metals 36(6) 3.5.1 Effects of fertilizers on soil microbial populations and enzymatic activity 36(2) 3.5.2 Heavy metal phytotoxicity 38(1) 3.5.3 Heavy metal stress on soil organisms 39(3) 3.6 Conclusions 42(1) 3.7 References 43(4)
Chapter 4 Environmental Xenobiotics: Pesticides 47(26) Mervyn Richardson 4.1 Introduction 47(2) 4.2 Regulations in the use of pesticides 49(2) 4.2.1 An example of a licensing registration 49(1) 4.2.2 The position in United Kingdom 50(1) 4.2.3 The position in Europe 51(1) 4.3 Xenobiotic transformation 51(3) 4.3.1 Carbamates 51(1) 4.3.2 Organophosphate pesticides 52(1) 4.3.3 Organochlorine pesticides 52(1) 4.3.4 Paraquat and diquat 52(1) 4.3.5 Dithiocarbamates 52(1) 4.3.6 Synthetic pyrethroids 53(1) 4.3.7 Other aspects 53(1) 4.4 What is not known about pesticide residues 54(1) 4.4.1 Danes ban selected pesticides as research links cancer clusters to agrochemicals 54(1) 4.4.2 More from Denmark 54(1) 4.5 What is required to be known 55(1) 4.6 Pesticides residues in food .... Is There a real problem? 55(9) 4.6.1 What industry does 56(1) 4.6.2 What governments and the international agencies do 57(7) 4.7 Monitoring programs 64(2) 4.7.1 Multiresidue methods 64(1) 4.7.2 Single residue methods 65(1) 4.7.3 Additional work on analytical methods is needed 65(1) 4.8 Mode of action: herbicides 66(1) 4.9 Advantages and disadvantages in natural xenobiotic pesticides 67(1) 4.10 Conclusions 67(3) 4.11 References 70(3)
Chapter 5 Xenobiotics in the Third World Agricultural Environment 73(22) Umar Khan Baloch Muhammed Haseeb 5.1 Introduction 73(3) 5.2 Xenobiotics in abiotic agroenvironment 76(2) 5.2.1 Pesticides 76(2) 5.2.2 Fertilizers 78(1) 5.3 Xenobiotics in biotic agroenvironment 78(6) 5.3.1 Pesticides 79(3) 5.3.2 Fertilizers 82(1) 5.3.3 Others 83(1) 5.4 Toxicology of major xenobiotics 84(6) 5.4.1 Pesticides 84(5) 5.4.2 Fertilizers 89(1) 5.5 Agroxenobiotics and regulation 90(1) 5.6 Alternatives to agrochemicals 91(1) 5.7 Conclusions 92(1) 5.8 References 93(2)
Chapter 6 Environmental Transformation in Bioenergy Production Using Anaerobic Digestion 95(26) Hussein I. Abdel-Shafy 6.1 Introduction 95(1) 6.2 Benefits of biogas 95(1) 6.3 Principles of anaerobic bioconversion 96(3) 6.4 Sources of waste materials for bioconversion 99(6) 6.4.1 Manure 99(2) 6.4.2 Agricultural crops 101(1) 6.4.3 Forests 102(1) 6.4.4 Urban wastes 102(1) 6.4.5 Agricultural wastes 103(1) 6.4.6 Industrial wastes 104(1) 6.5 Anaerobic digestion 105(4) 6.5.1 Process description 106(1) 6.5.2 Technology 107(2) 6.6 Environmental factors affecting anaerobic operation 109(5) 6.6.1 Composition of raw sludge 109(1) 6.6.2 Heavy metals 110(1) 6.6.3 Ammonia 110(1) 6.6.4 Sulfate 110(1) 6.6.5 Nitrates 111(1) 6.6.6 Temperature 111(1) 6.6.7 Hydrogen in concentrates (pH) 111(1) 6.6.8 Inorganic salts 112(2) 6.7 Safety and utilization of biogas 114(1) 6.8 Costs of bioenergy 115(1) 6.8.1 Capital cost-sensitive technologies 115(1) 6.9 Conclusions 116(1) 6.10 Acknowledgements 117(1) 6.11 References 118(3) SECTION 3 BIOMONITORING 121(116)
Chapter 7 Integrative Approach to Aquatic Environment Biomonitoring 123(20) Sashwati Roy Pirjo Lindstrom-Seppa Osmo Hanninen 7.1 Introduction 123(1) 7.2 Transport, bioavailability and uptake 123(1) 7.3 Biochemical and molecular markers in biomonitoring 124(9) 7.3.1 Biotransformation system 125(5) 7.3.2 Antioxidant defense systems 130(1) 7.3.3 DNA adducts 131(1) 7.3.4 Stress problems 132(1) 7.3.5 Hemoxygenase 132(1) 7.3.6 Micronuclei test 132(1) 7.4 Criteria for selection of biomarkers of environmental pollution 133(1) 7.4.1 Sensitivity 133(1) 7.4.2 General and specific responses 133(1) 7.4.3 Practical consideration 133(1) 7.4.4 Inherent variability 134(1) 7.4.5 Applicability and validation in fields 134(1) 7.4.6 Relevance of biochemical response at higher levels 134(1) 7.5 Integrative approach in monitoring 134(1) 7.6 References 135(8)
Chapter 8 Cytochrome P-450 in Pollution Monitoring. Use of Cytochrome P-450 1A (CYP1A) as a Biomarker of Organic Pollution in Aquatic and other Organisms 143(18) David R. Livingstone 8.1 Introduction 143(1) 8.2 General features and use of biomarkers 144(1) 8.3 Induction of cytochrome P-450 1A (CYP1A) in animals as a specific biomarker of organic pollution 144(8) 8.3.1 Basic characteristics of the CYPIA enzyme system 144(1) 8.3.2 Induction of hepatic CYP1A in fish and other vertebrates as a biomarker for organic pollution 145(5) 8.3.3 Existence and biomarker potential of a CYP1A-like enzyme in marine invertebrates 150(2) 8.4 CYP1A-Catalyzed metabolisms and links with higher order deleterious effects 152(1) 8.5 Concluding remarks 153(1) 8.6 Acknowledgements 154(1) 8.7 References 154(7)
Chapter 9 Immunoassays for Rapid, Inexpensive Monitoring of Agricultural Chemicals 161(18) Philippe Ross Geoffrey Scott Michael Fulton Erich D. Stozier 9.1 Introduction 161(1) 9.2 Enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) 162(2) 9.3 Case studies 164(11) 9.3.1 Assessment of fish kills from agricultural pesticide runoff 164(3) 9.3.2 Unusual mortality in marine mammals and other protected species 167(5) 9.3.3 Monitoring of non-point source pesticide runoff 172(3) 9.4 Potential applications; limitations 175(2) 9.5 References 177(2)
Chapter 10 The Role of Algae in Ecotoxicological Tests 179(16) Bozena Sosak-Swiderska Danuta Tyrawska 10.1 Introduction 179(1) 10.2 Test algae 179(3) 10.2.1 Selenastrum capricornutum, Anabaena flos-aquae and Microcystis aeruginosa 180(1) 10.2.2 Chlonella spp., Scenedesmus spp. (green algae), or Navicula pelliculosa and Euglena gracilis in freshwater and Thalassiosira spp., Dunaliella spp. or Skelotonema costatum in the marine ecosystem 180(1) 10.2.3 Laminaria, Macrocystis, Fucus, Ulva and Enteromorpha genera (Table 10.1) 180(2) 10.2.4 Multispecies tests 182(1) 10.3 Test methodologies 182(3) 10.4 Test endpoints 185(1) 10.5 Vulnerability of algae to toxic contaminants 186(3) 10.6 Conclusions and future of algal ecotoxicological tests 189(1) 10.7 References 190(5)
Chapter 11 Use of Micro-Scale Aquatic Toxicity Tests in Ecolabelling Guidelines for General Purpose Cleaners 195(18) Norman Bermingham George Costan Christian Blaise Lynne Patenaude 11.1 Introduction 195(1) 11.2 Materials and methods 196(4) 11.2.1 Bioassays 196(2) 11.2.2 Micro-scale bioassays 198(1) 11.2.3 Macro-scale assays 198(1) 11.2.4 Measurement of end points 198(1) 11.2.5 Conversion of toxic units into mg 1(-1) (ppm) 199(1) 11.2.6 Aeration and degradation of cleaners 199(1) 11.2.7 PEEP index 199(1) 11.2.8 Data processing and statistical analyses 200(1) 11.3 Results and discussion 200(9) 11.3.1 Test sensitivity 202(2) 11.3.2 Toxicity modification (aeration/degradation) 204(1) 11.3.3 Toxicity associated with general purpose cleaners 204(3) 11.3.4 Toxicity comparison: general purpose cleaners and industrial effluents 207(1) 11.3.5 Acceptability levels for general purpose cleaners 208(1) 11.4 Conclusions 209(1) 11.5 Acknowledgements 210(1) 11.6 References 210(3)
Chapter 12 Radiation Sources and Experimental Conditions for Testing the Photodegradability of Xenobiotics in Surface Waters: Actual Status and New Developments 213(24) Klaus Fischer Werner Bergheim Burkhard Severon 12.1 Introduction 213(4) 12.2 Experimental 217(4) 12.2.1 Chemicals 217(1) 12.2.2 Procedure and analytical methods 218(1) 12.2.3 Radiation device 218(3) 12.2.2 Procedure and analytical methods 12.3 Results 221(9) 12.3.1 Assessment of the relative spectral distribution of the HMI metal halide lamp 221(6) 12.3.2 Optical transmission of polymer materials 227(1) 12.3.3 Photodegradation of HEDP 227(3) 12.4 Conclusions 230(2) 12.5 Acknowledgements 232(1) 12.6 References 233(4) SECTION 4 BIODEGRADABILITY 237(50)
Chapter 13 Biological Degradability Testing 239(22) Pavel Pitter Vladimir Sykora 13.1 Introduction 239(3) 13.2 Methods of biodegradability assays 242(15) 13.2.1 Tests for ready biodegradability 242(2) 13.2.2 Tests for potential (inherent) biodegradability 244(1) 13.2.3 Simulation (confirmation) tests 245(1) 13.2.4 Supplementary tests 246(11) 13.3 Biodegradability limits 257(2) 13.4 Acknowledgements 259(1) 13.5 References 259(2)
Chapter 14 Chlorinated Acetanilides: Biodegradation and Toxicity in Gram-Negative Cells 261(26) Janina Berzinskiene Anolda Cetkauskaite 14.1 Introduction 261(1) 14.2 Application and chemical properties of acetanilides and related derivatives 261(3) 14.2.1 Structure and application 261(1) 14.2.2 Physicochemical properties 262(2) 14.2.3 Chemical degradation 264(1) 14.3 Metabolism and biodegradation of chlorinated acetanilides 264(9) 14.3.1 Metabolism 264(2) 14.3.2 Biodegradation analysis in water systems 266(7) 14.4 Toxicity of chlorinated acetanilides and related derivatives 273(9) 14.4.1 Toxicity to animals 273(1) 14.4.2 Toxicity to plant cells 274(1) 14.4.3 Toxicity to microbial cells 275(7) 14.5 Conclusions 282(1) 14.6 Acknowledgements 283(1) 14.7 References 283(4) SECTION 5 NOVEL ENVIRONMENTAL CONCEPTS 287(132)
Chapter 15 Organic Explosives as Dangerous Environmental Xenobiotics--QSAR Studies 289(24) Slobodan Rendic Marica Medic-Saric Sonja Nikolic Nenad Trinajstic 15.1 Introduction 289(5) 15.2 Elements of structure-property analysis 294(5) 15.2.1 Property-property QSPR models 296(1) 15.2.2 Quantum-chemical QSPR models 296(1) 15.2.3 Structure-property QSPR models 297(1) 15.2.4 Computer graphic QSPR models 298(1) 15.3 Methods and examples 299(3) 15.3.1 Topological indices 300(1) 15.3.2 The Weiner index 300(1) 15.3.3 The connectivity index 300(1) 15.3.4 The Balaban index, J(G) 301(1) 15.3.5 The information-theoretic index, I(G) 302(1) 15.4 Results and discussion 302(6) 15.5 Concluding remarks 308(1) 15.6 References 308(5)
Chapter 16 Environmental Dynamics and Ecotoxicology of Human and Veterinary Drugs 313(8) P. N. Viswanathan Farhat N. Jaffery Devika Nag 16.1 Introduction 313(1) 16.2 Pharmaceutical agents and their effects on ecosystems 314(1) 16.3 Persistence and fate 315(1) 16.4 Antibiotic manufacture 315(1) 16.5 Effects and usage 316(1) 16.5.1 General effects 316(1) 16.5.2 Hospital use 316(1) 16.5.3 Effects on microorganisms 316(1) 16.6 Regulatory aspects 316(1) 16.7 References 317(4)
Chapter 17 Carcinogenic Xenobiotics in Ecosystems and Human Health 321(12) Boris L. Rubenchik 17.1 Introduction 321(1) 17.2 Carcinogens in the phytosphere 321(1) 17.2.1 Chemical and biological carcinogens in plants 321(1) 17.3 Influence of carcinogens on plants 322(1) 17.3.1 Biochemical effects 322(1) 17.3.2 Induction of neoplastic growth by carcinogens 323(1) 17.4 How carcinogens influence the natural ecosystems 323(1) 17.5 Carcinogens in aquatic ecosystems 324(2) 17.5.1 Aquatic organisms as conveyors and indicators of carcinogenic xenobiotics 324(1) 17.5.2 Enhanced liver metabolisms of carcinogens in fish inhabiting polluted water 325(1) 17.6 Implications of carcinogenic contamination of biosensors for human health 326(3) 17.6.1 Natural anticarcinogens in plant and aquatic animals 326(2) 17.6.2 The nutritional interfaces between aquatic animal and human health 328(1) 17.7 Conclusions 329(1) 17.8 References 330(3)
Chapter 18 Environmental Aspects of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Originating Mainly From Coal-Fired Combustion Systems and Their Monitoring Requirements 333(22) Abdurrahman Bayram Aysen Muezzinoglu 18.1 Introduction 333(2) 18.1.1 General 333(1) 18.1.2 Chemical identity of PAHs 333(2) 18.1.3 Evaluation of xenobiotic nature of the PAH compounds 335(1) 18.2 Sources of PAH and their occurrence in the environment 335(8) 18.2.1 Sources of PAH 335(4) 18.2.2 The occurrence of PAHs in different media 339(3) 18.2.3 Recent administrative measures for PAHs 342(1) 18.3 Combustion system monitoring with respect to PAHs 343(7) 18.3.1 Types of PAH emissions from combustion systems 343(1) 18.3.2 Measurement of PAHs in combustion process emissions 344(3) 18.3.3 Combustion technology 347(1) 18.3.4 PAH emission factors 348(2) 18.4 Results 350(2) 18.5 References 352(3)
Chapter 19 Distribution of Mercury, Lead and Cadmium in Zagreb City Soil 355(20) Ladislav A. Palinkas Ksenija Namjesnik-Dejanovic Slobodan F. Milo Simon Pirc Goran Durn 19.1 Introduction 355(1) 19.2 Some notes on anthropogenic pollution sources of mercury, lead and cadmium 355(2) 19.2.1 Mercury 355(1) 19.2.2 Lead 356(1) 19.2.3 Cadmium 356(1) 19.3 Sampling in Zagreb city 357(3) 19.3.1 Sample material and sampling design 357(1) 19.3.2 Analytical methods 358(2) 19.4 Results, geochemical maps 360(6) 19.5 Discussion 366(5) 19.5.1 Mercury 366(1) 19.5.2 Lead 367(1) 19.5.3 Cadmium 368(3) 19.6 Conclusion 371(1) 19.7 Acknowledgements 371(1) 19.8 References 372(3)
Chapter 20 Remains of World War 1 Geochemical Pollution in the Landscape 375(44) Simon Pirc Tomaz Budkovic 20.1 Introduction 375(2) 20.2 Background 377(12) 20.2.1 Geology 377(6) 20.2.2 History 383(1) 20.2.3 Organization of the front 384(1) 20.2.4 Environmental impact 385(4) 20.3 Materials and methods 389(6) 20.3.1 Materials sampled 389(1) 20.3.2 Sampling designs 390(3) 20.3.3 Sampling, preparation and analysis 393(2) 20.4 Results and discussion 395(19) 20.4.1 Quality of determinations 395(1) 20.4.2 Elemental contents of copper, mercury, lead, antimony and zinc in soil and stream sediment samples 396(14) 20.4.3 Other sample media 410(1) 20.4.4 Quantitative assessment of military pollution 411(3) 20.5 Conclusions 414(1) 20.6 Acknowledgements 415(1) 20.7 References 415(4) SECTION 6 MANAGEMENT AND REGULATORY ASPECTS 419(36)
Chapter 21 Management of Environmental Xenobiotics 421(20) Mervyn Richardson 21.1 Introduction 421(1) 21.2 Environmental toxicology 421(8) 21.2.1 The principles 421(1) 21.2.2 Environmental hazards and risks 422(3) 21.2.3 Substances classified as dangerous to the environment 425(4) 21.3 Environmental risk assessment of new and existing substances 429(5) 21.3.1 Predicted environmental concentration (PEC) 430(1) 21.3.2 Predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) 431(3) 21.4 Integrated pollution control (IPC) 434(4) 21.4.1 Best practical environmental option (BPEO) 434(1) 21.4.2 Best available techniques (with) not excluding excessive costs (BAT with NEEC) 435(1) 21.4.3 Application of PEC 435(1) 21.4.4 Considerations for selecting the best available techniques (BAT) 435(3) 21.5 Conclusions 438(1) 21.6 References 438(3)
Chapter 22 Environmental Regulatory Control of Biocides, Pesticides, and Human and Veterinary Medicines 441(14) Joanne L. Bunyan John W. Handley Derek J. Knight 22.1 Introduction 441(1) 22.2 Control of agricultural pesticides in the European Union 442(2) 22.3 Control of biocides in the European Union 444(2) 22.4 The US Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act 446(1) 22.5 Environmental risk assessment of human and veterinary pharmaceutical products in the EU 447(2) 22.6 Environmental assessment of pharmaceutical products in the USA 449(1) 22.7 Conclusions 450(1) 22.8 References 451(4) SECTION 7 EPILOG 455(14)
Chapter 23 Epilog 457(12) Mervyn Richardson 23.1 Rationale 457(5) 23.1.1 Pharmaceuticals 457(1) 23.1.2 Pesticides 458(2) 23.1.3 War and the environment 460(1) 23.1.4 Investment 461(1) 23.2 Mechanisms of interactions 462(1) 23.3 Mixtures 462(1) 23.4 Transformation 462(1) 23.5 Monitoring 463(1) 23.6 Novel concepts 464(1) 23.7 Regulatory aspects 465(1) 23.8 Some environmental problems 465(1) 23.9 Conclusion 466(2) 23.10 References 468(1) Index 469