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E-raamat: Practical Aspects of Flow Assurance in the Petroleum Industry [Taylor & Francis e-raamat]

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Practical Aspects of Flow Assurance in the Petroleum IndustrySuurem pilt
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With easily accessible oil reserves dwindling, petroleum engineers must have a sound understanding of how to access technically challenging resources, especially in the deepwater environment. These technically challenging resources bring with them complexities around fluid flow not normally associated with conventional production systems, and engineers must be knowledgeable about navigating these complexities. Practical Aspects of Flow Assurance in the Petroleum Industry aims to provide practical guidance on all aspects of flow assurance to offer readers a ready reference on how to ensure uninterrupted transport of processed fluids throughout the flow infrastructure by











covering all practical aspects of flow assurance,





being written in such a way that any engineer dealing with the oil and gas industry will be able to understand the material,





containing solved examples on most topics,





placing equal emphasis on experimental techniques and modeling methods, and





devoting an entire chapter to the analysis and interpretation of published case studies.

With its balance of theory and practical applications, this work provides petroleum engineers from a variety of backgrounds with the information needed to maintain and enhance productivity.
Series Preface xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Author Biographies xix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Flow Assurance
1(6)
1.1 What Is It?
1(1)
1.2 Operating Environment and Consequences
1(3)
1.3 The "Big Five"
4(1)
1.4 Oil and Gas Transport Pipelines
4(1)
1.5 Flow Assurance Activities
5(1)
1.6 Organization of the Book
6(1)
References
6(1)
Chapter 2 Overview of Petroleum Reservoir Fluids
7(44)
2.1 Introduction
7(1)
2.2 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Fluids
7(12)
2.2.1 Chemistry of Reservoir Fluids
8(1)
2.2.1.1 Chemical Properties of Gases and Crude Oil
8(3)
2.2.1.2 Chemical Properties of Formation Water
11(1)
2.2.2 Physical and Reservoir Engineering Properties of Fluids
11(1)
2.2.2.1 Physical Properties of Gases
11(3)
2.2.2.2 Physical Properties of Crude Oil
14(4)
2.2.2.3 Physical Properties of Formation Water
18(1)
2.3 Petroleum Reservoir Classification
19(3)
2.3.1 Composition of Oil and Gas Reservoir Fluids
19(2)
2.3.2 Tar Sand and Bitumen
21(1)
2.3.3 Examples of Worldwide Oil and Gas Reservoirs
21(1)
2.4 Phase Behavior Fundamentals
22(12)
2.4.1 Phase Diagram of a Pure System
22(1)
2.4.1.1 Phase Diagram of Pure Water
23(1)
2.4.2 Phase Diagram of Binary and Ternary Systems
24(1)
2.4.3 Phase Behavior of Reservoir Fluids
25(1)
2.4.4 Construction of Phase Diagram
26(2)
2.4.5 Salient Features of the Phase Behavior of Five Reservoir Fluids
28(1)
2.4.5.1 Black Oil
28(1)
2.4.5.2 Volatile Oil
29(1)
2.4.5.3 Retrograde Gas Condensate
30(2)
2.4.5.4 Wet Gas
32(1)
2.4.5.5 Dry Gas
33(1)
2.4.5.6 Saturated Petroleum Reservoirs
34(1)
2.5 Fluid Sampling for Flow Assurance
34(17)
2.5.1 Well Conditioning
35(1)
2.5.1.1 Undersaturated Oil Reservoirs
35(1)
2.5.1.2 Saturated Oil Reservoirs
36(1)
2.5.1.3 Gas Condensate Reservoirs
37(1)
2.5.2 Methods of Fluid Sampling
37(1)
2.5.2.1 Subsurface Sampling
37(3)
2.5.2.2 Surface Sampling
40(2)
2.5.2.3 Subsea Sampling
42(3)
2.5.3 Special Consideration for Flow Assurance
45(1)
2.5.3.1 Waxy and Asphaltenic Crude Oil
45(1)
2.5.3.2 Sampling of Crude Oil Emulsions
45(1)
2.5.3.3 Corrosive Reservoir Fluid
46(1)
2.5.4 Potential Errors during Fluid Sampling
46(1)
References
47(4)
Chapter 3 Laboratory Studies and Characterization of Petroleum Reservoir Ruids
51(32)
3.1 Introduction
51(1)
3.2 Basic Compositional Measurements
51(2)
3.3 HTGC and SARA Analysis
53(3)
3.3.1 HTGC
53(2)
3.3.2 SARA Analysis
55(1)
3.4 Conventional PVT Tests
56(8)
3.4.1 Constant Composition Expansion
56(1)
3.4.2 Differential Liberation and Separator Tests
57(6)
3.4.3 Constant Volume Depletion
63(1)
3.5 Fluid Characterization Using Laboratory Measured Data
64(8)
3.6 Produced Water Characterization
72(11)
3.6.1 Produced Water Salinity or Composition
73(1)
3.6.1.1 Gas Hydrate Phase Equilibria and Salinity
73(1)
3.6.1.2 Scaling and Salinity
74(1)
3.6.1.3 Naphthenates and Salinity
75(1)
3.6.1.4 Corrosion and Salinity
75(1)
3.6.2 Produced Water Density and Viscosity
75(2)
3.6.3 Water Content of Natural Gas
77(2)
3.6.4 Significance of Produced Water Characterization in Flow Assurance
79(1)
References
79(4)
Chapter 4 Characterization of Inorganic and Organic Solid Phases
83(40)
4.1 Introduction
83(1)
4.2 Paraffins or Waxes
83(4)
4.2.1 Wax Content of Crude Oil
85(1)
4.2.1.1 Universal Oil Products 46-64 Method
85(1)
4.2.1.2 Pulsed NMR
85(1)
4.2.1.3 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
85(1)
4.2.1.4 HTGC
86(1)
4.3 Asphaltene
87(11)
4.3.1 Models for Asphaltene Structure
88(1)
4.3.2 Properties of Asphaltenes
89(1)
4.3.2.1 Aromaticity
89(1)
4.3.2.2 Density and Viscosity
90(1)
4.3.2.3 Molecular Weight
90(1)
4.3.3 Characterization of Asphaltene
90(1)
4.3.3.1 Molecular Weight Distribution
90(2)
4.3.3.2 Molecular Structure
92(1)
4.3.3.3 Functional Group and Elemental Analysis
92(3)
4.3.3.4 Aggregate Crystalline Parameter and Surface Morphology
95(1)
4.3.3.5 Asphaltene Separation using SARA Analysis
96(2)
4.4 Naphthenate
98(2)
4.4.1 Properties of Napthanates
99(1)
4.4.2 Characterization of Naphthenates
99(1)
4.4.2.1 Sodium Naphthenate
99(1)
4.4.2.2 Calcium Naphthenate
99(1)
4.5 Gas Hydrates
100(5)
4.5.1 Hydrate Structures
101(1)
4.5.2 Characterization of Hydrate
102(1)
4.5.2.1 Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD)
103(1)
4.5.2.2 NMR Spectroscopy
104(1)
4.5.2.3 Neutron Diffraction Study
105(1)
4.6 Corrosion and Scale
105(7)
4.6.1 Principles and Products of Corrosion
106(1)
4.6.2 Electrochemical Theory of Corrosion
107(1)
4.6.3 Types of Corrosion
108(1)
4.6.3.1 Pitting
108(1)
4.6.3.2 Uniform and Nonuniform Corrosion
109(1)
4.6.3.3 Fretting
109(1)
4.6.3.4 Corrosion Due to CO2/Sweet Corrosion
109(1)
4.6.3.5 Corrosion Due to H2S/Sour Corrosion
110(1)
4.6.3.6 Oxygen Corrosion
111(1)
4.6.3.7 Galvanic Corrosion
111(1)
4.6.3.8 Crevice Corrosion
111(1)
4.6.3.9 Erosion Corrosion
112(1)
4.6.3.10 Microbial-Induced Corrosion
112(1)
4.6.3.11 Stress Corrosion
112(1)
4.7 Organic Solid Phase Envelopes
112(4)
4.7.1 Wax Precipitation Envelope
112(1)
4.7.2 Asphaltene Precipitation Envelope
113(1)
4.7.3 Gas Hydrate Phase Envelope
114(2)
4.8 Use of Solids Phase Envelopes---Operating Envelope for Gulf of Mexico
116(7)
References
117(6)
Chapter 5 Assessment of Inorganic and Organic Solid Phases and other Flow Assurance Issues
123(46)
5.1 Introduction
123(1)
5.2 Rules of Thumb
124(1)
5.2.1 Hydrates
124(1)
5.2.2 Paraffin Waxes
124(1)
5.2.3 Flow-Related and Miscellaneous
124(1)
5.3 Empirical Methods
125(4)
5.3.1 Hydrate Formation Conditions
126(1)
5.3.2 Asphaltene Stability Assessment
126(3)
5.4 Experimental Techniques
129(22)
5.4.1 Fluid Studies for Wax
129(1)
5.4.1.1 Visual Method
130(1)
5.4.1.2 Cold Finger
131(1)
5.4.1.3 Flow Loop Experiments
131(1)
5.4.1.4 Cross-Polar Microscopy
132(1)
5.4.1.5 Viscometry
132(1)
5.4.1.6 DSC
132(1)
5.4.1.7 Filter Plugging
133(1)
5.4.1.8 Gelation and Gel Strength
134(1)
5.4.2 Fluid Studies for Asphaltene
135(1)
5.4.2.1 Gravimetric Method
135(1)
5.4.2.2 Light Scattering Technique Using Near-Infrared
136(2)
5.4.2.3 Acoustic Resonance Technique
138(1)
5.4.2.4 Viscosity Measurement Technique
138(1)
5.4.3 Fluid Studies for Gas Hydrate
139(1)
5.4.3.1 Phase Stability Study
140(2)
5.4.3.2 Isothermal Kinetic Study
142(3)
5.4.3.3 Rheological Studies
145(1)
5.4.3.4 Flow Loop Experiments
146(1)
5.4.3.5 Morphology Studies
147(4)
5.5 Equations of State and Other Modeling Methods
151(5)
5.5.1 Hydrate Modeling
152(1)
5.5.2 Paraffin or Wax Modeling
152(2)
5.5.3 Asphaltene Modeling
154(2)
5.6 Other Flow Assurance Issues: Emulsions and Fouling
156(13)
5.6.1 Crude Oil Emulsions
156(3)
5.6.2 Fouling
159(1)
5.6.2.1 Macrofouling
160(1)
5.6.2.2 Microfouling
160(2)
References
162(7)
Chapter 6 Deepwater Oil and Gas Environment
169(36)
6.1 Introduction
169(1)
6.2 Overview of Offshore Production Systems
170(8)
6.2.1 Classification and Types of Offshore Platforms
170(1)
6.2.2 Fixed Platforms
171(1)
6.2.3 Compliant platforms
171(1)
6.2.4 Mobile Platforms
171(2)
6.2.5 Production Platforms
173(1)
6.2.5.1 TLP
174(1)
6.2.5.2 FPSO
175(1)
6.2.5.3 FPS
176(1)
6.2.5.4 Spar Platform
177(1)
6.3 Deepwater Challenges
178(1)
6.4 Deepwater Station Positioning
178(1)
6.5 Subsea Production System and Its Elements
179(15)
6.5.1 Wet Tree and Dry Tree Systems
181(1)
6.5.2 Subsea Flowlines
182(2)
6.5.2.1 Risers
184(4)
6.5.2.2 Manifolds, Jumpers, and Tie-Ins
188(6)
6.6 Deepwater Temperature Regimes
194(2)
6.7 Ocean Water Salinity and Density Profile
196(1)
6.8 Subsea Processing and Separation
197(8)
6.8.1 Gas-Liquid Separation
198(1)
6.8.2 Gas Compression
199(1)
6.8.3 Sand Handling
199(1)
6.8.4 Subsea Cooling Application
199(1)
6.8.5 Subsea Separation
199(1)
6.8.6 Deployment Window and Success of SSP
200(1)
References
201(4)
Chapter 7 Management and Control of Solids in Flow Assurance
205(58)
7.1 Introduction
205(1)
7.2 Mechanism of Organic and Inorganic Solid Deposition
205(4)
7.2.1 Wax Deposition
205(2)
7.2.2 Asphaltene Deposition
207(1)
7.2.3 Hydrate Deposition
207(1)
7.2.4 Scale Deposition
208(1)
7.3 Locating Solid Blockage in Flowline Infrastructure
209(6)
7.3.1 Intrusive Methods and Nonintrusive Methods
209(1)
7.3.2 Nondestructive Testing Methods
209(1)
7.3.2.1 Visual Method
209(1)
7.3.2.2 Radiographic Method
210(1)
7.3.2.3 Pig-Assisted Monitoring System
210(1)
7.3.2.4 Acoustic Reflectometry Method
210(1)
7.3.2.5 Ultrasonic Testing Method
210(1)
7.3.2.6 Mass and Fluid Composition Measurement
211(1)
7.3.2.7 Densitometry Method
211(2)
7.3.2.8 Isotope Tracking Method
213(1)
7.3.2.9 Model-Based Method
213(1)
7.3.2.10 Pressure Measurement-Based Method
213(2)
7.4 Solid Mitigation Methods
215(24)
7.4.1 Wax Remediation Techniques
215(1)
7.4.1.1 Thermal Techniques
216(1)
7.4.1.2 Mechanical Techniques
217(2)
7.4.1.3 Chemical Techniques
219(3)
7.4.1.4 Advanced Methods
222(4)
7.4.2 Asphaltene Remediation Techniques
226(1)
7.4.2.1 Thermal Methods
226(1)
7.4.2.2 Mechanical Techniques
227(1)
7.4.2.3 Chemical Method
227(1)
7.4.2.4 Surface Coating Method
228(1)
7.4.3 Hydrate Remediation Techniques
229(1)
7.4.3.1 Thermal Techniques
229(2)
7.4.3.2 Mechanical Methods
231(1)
7.4.3.3 Hydraulic or Depressurization Method
232(1)
7.4.3.4 Hydraflow
232(1)
7.4.3.5 Operational Methods
233(1)
7.4.3.6 Chemical Techniques
233(2)
7.4.4 Scale and Corrosion Inhibitors
235(1)
7.4.4.1 Scale Inhibitor
235(2)
7.4.4.2 Corrosion Inhibitor
237(2)
7.5 Chemical Dosing Rate for Blockage Prevention
239(8)
7.5.1 Wax and Asphaltene Inhibitor
239(2)
7.5.2 Gas Hydrate Inhibitor
241(1)
7.5.2.1 Empirical Correlations for Hydrates
242(1)
7.5.3 Scale Inhibitor
243(4)
7.6 Production Chemicals Inventory Management
247(16)
7.6.1 Strategy for Managing Chemicals and Inventory
248(1)
7.6.2 Real-Time Chemical Inventory and Usage Platform
248(1)
7.6.3 Advantages of Real-Time Chemical Monitoring System
248(1)
References
249(14)
Chapter 8 The Role of Solids in Subsurface and Surface Flow
263(26)
8.1 Introduction
263(1)
8.2 Formation Damage Concepts, Causes, and Skin Effects
263(5)
8.2.1 Asphaltene Formation Damage or Tubing-Related Problems
265(1)
8.2.2 Wax or Paraffin Formation Damage or Tubing-Related Problems
266(2)
8.3 Productivity Index and Skin
268(1)
8.4 Deposits in Wellbore/Production Tubing and Surface Facilities
269(5)
8.5 Deposits in Long-Distance Pipelines
274(4)
8.6 Topics Related to Flow Assurance in Long-Distance Pipelines
278(11)
8.6.1 Gel Strength
278(3)
8.6.2 Diluents for Flow Improvement
281(3)
8.6.3 DRAs
284(1)
References
285(4)
Chapter 9 Fluid Mechanics in Flow Assurance
289(52)
9.1 Introduction
289(1)
9.2 Mechanical Energy Balance Equation
289(3)
9.3 Shut-In Wellhead Pressure Calculations and Relationship with Flow Assurance
292(4)
9.4 Single-Phase Flowline/Pipeline Hydraulics
296(7)
9.4.1 Pressure Drop Calculations
296(2)
9.4.2 Sizing of Flowlines
298(1)
9.4.3 Sizing of Inhibitor Tubing
299(2)
9.4.4 Estimating the Pressure Drop in a Long-Distance Pipeline Containing a Wax Layer
301(2)
9.4.4.1 Estimate of Pressure to Restart a Pipeline Filled with Gelled Oil
303(1)
9.5 Superficial and Actual Velocities
303(1)
9.5.1 Liquid Holdup
304(1)
9.6 Flow Patterns and Regimes
304(1)
9.7 Multiphase Pressure Drop Prediction
305(27)
9.7.1 Homogeneous Model
306(1)
9.7.1.1 Numerical Example
307(4)
9.7.2 Empirical Models -- Hagedorn and Brown
311(9)
9.7.3 Mechanistic Models -- Vertical Flow
320(6)
9.7.4 Empirical and Mechanistic Models -- Deviated Systems
326(1)
9.7.4.1 Empirical Models -- Beggs and Brill
326(3)
9.7.4.2 Mechanistic Models
329(3)
9.8 Transient Models
332(2)
9.9 Slugging and Water Hammer and Its Mitigation
334(7)
9.9.1 Slugging
334(1)
9.9.1.1 Slug Catchers
335(1)
9.9.2 Water Hammer
336(2)
References
338(3)
Chapter 10 Flow Assurance Case Studies and Engineer's Toolbox
341(38)
10.1 Introduction
341(1)
10.2 Compilation of Field Case Studies on Solids
341(22)
10.2.1 Hydrates
341(4)
10.2.2 Waxes
345(4)
10.2.3 Asphaltenes
349(3)
10.2.4 Naphthenates
352(4)
10.2.5 Scale
356(4)
10.2.6 Multiple Organic and Inorganic Solids
360(2)
10.2.7 Sand Migration and Flow
362(1)
10.3 Flow Assurance and Hydraulic Fracturing
363(1)
10.4 HSE Considerations of Flow Assurance
364(4)
10.5 Perspectives on Flow Assurance Economics
368(1)
10.6 Summary of Flow Assurance Technologies and Practical Considerations
369(5)
10.6.1 Operating Company Perspectives
369(3)
10.6.2 Subsea Processing
372(1)
10.6.3 Waxphaltenes
373(1)
10.7 Flow Assurance Engineer's Toolbox
374(5)
References
375(4)
Index 379
Abhijit Dandekar is Professor and Chair of the Petroleum Engineering Department at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Before joining UAF, he was an assistant research professor at the Technical University of Denmark. He has been a visiting professor at the African University of Science and Technology (AUST) in Abuja, Nigeria, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa (as Fulbright specialist), China University of Petroleum Beijing, China University of Petroleum in Qingdao, and at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India (as Global Initiative of Academic Network fellow). He holds a B.Tech degree in chemical engineering from Nagpur University, India and a Ph.D. degree in petroleum engineering from Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK. He has authored more than 100 peer-reviewed and conference papers and a widely adopted textbook on Petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties and co-authored a book on Petroleum Fluid Phase Behavior: Characterization, Processes, and Applications. He is also the editor for Emerging Trends and Technologies in Petroleum Engineering book series. In 2014 he received the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE) Distinguished Membership and Fulbright Specialist awards. In 2015 he was the recipient of the SPE Western North America Region Distinguished Achievement Award for Petroleum Engineering Faculty. Over the last 20 years he has contributed to numerous SPE activities, is a current SPE nominated petroleum engineering program evaluator (PEV) for Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology (ABET) and has served on several domestic and two international visits.

Dr. Jitendra S. Sangwai is currently working as a full Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering and is associated with the Petroleum Engineering Program of the Department of Ocean Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras. He holds an M.Tech and a Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from IIT Kharagpur and IIT Kanpur. Dr. Sangwai worked with Schlumberger for a brief period before joining academia. Dr. Sangwais research interest lies mainly in gas hydrates, enhanced oil recovery, and rheology of complex fluids. He has published approximately 130 international journal papers, 90 conference publications, and filed 20 patents. He has graduated 20 Ph.D. and several Masters degree students. Dr. Sangwai is the recipient of the Society of Petroleum Engineers Distinguished Achievement Award for Petroleum Engineering Faculty of the South Asia and Pacific region in 2017, the National Award for Technology Innovation from the Gov. of India (2016 and 2018), the Young Faculty Recognition Award for excellence in teaching and research, Institute Research and Development Awards (both at Early- and Mid-Career level) and Shri. J. C. Bose Patent Award from IIT Madras, and SPE Regional Service Award (2015). Dr. Sangwai has been highlighted as One among 25 Emerging Investigators and Top 1% Highly Cited Author recognition by the American Chemical Society Journals.
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