| Preface |
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v | |
| Foreword |
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ix | |
| Executive Summary |
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1 | (6) |
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7 | (96) |
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1 China's Move to Low Carbon Economy |
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9 | (8) |
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1.1 Measures and Policies Undertaken by China |
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9 | (4) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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1.1.6 Remaining opportunities |
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13 | (1) |
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1.2 Further Areas of Study |
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13 | (4) |
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1.2.1 The cost effectiveness and energy savings from plant closures |
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14 | (1) |
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1.2.2 The efficacy of China's focus on the Top-1,000 enterprises |
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14 | (1) |
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1.2.3 The cost effectiveness of China's focus on specific technologies |
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15 | (2) |
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2 Technology Advancement and Innovations |
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17 | (16) |
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2.1 Technology Advancement and Innovations During the 11th Five-Year Period |
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17 | (9) |
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2.1.1 Promotion of advanced technologies |
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17 | (6) |
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2.1.2 Phase-out of outdated technologies |
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23 | (1) |
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2.1.3 Manufacturing high-efficient equipment |
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24 | (1) |
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2.1.4 Increased technical inputs |
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24 | (2) |
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2.2 Technology Development Issues |
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26 | (3) |
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2.2.1 Insufficient technological innovations |
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26 | (2) |
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2.2.2 Barriers of technology transfer |
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28 | (1) |
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2.3 Outlook of Technology Advancement |
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29 | (4) |
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3 Structural Adjustment for Quality of Development |
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33 | (16) |
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3.1 China's Structural Adjustment During the 11th Five-Year Period |
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34 | (3) |
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3.1.1 Structural change of primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors |
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34 | (2) |
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3.1.2 The proportion of heavy industry in industrial value-added remains high but grows slower |
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36 | (1) |
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3.1.3 Product structural adjustment and enterprise expansion |
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36 | (1) |
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3.1.4 Structural adjustment's contribution to energy saving |
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37 | (1) |
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3.2 The Factors and Mechanisms Facilitating Structural Adjustment |
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37 | (5) |
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3.2.1 Target responsibility system promotes structural adjustment vertically |
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37 | (2) |
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3.2.2 Industry access system controls high energy-consumption industries at the source |
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39 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Market pressures constrain high energy-consumption industries from expansion |
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40 | (1) |
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3.2.4 Governmental energy saving incentives help accelerate structural optimization |
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41 | (1) |
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3.3 Factors and Mechanisms Constraining Structural Adjustment |
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42 | (4) |
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3.3.1 Urbanization promotes heavy and chemical industrialization |
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42 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Economic profits stimulate local government's attentions on heavy industry |
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43 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Low resource price intensifies investment on high energy-consumption industries |
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44 | (1) |
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3.3.4 Short-term effect of employment constrains structural adjustment |
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44 | (2) |
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3.3.5 Insufficient technological capacity constrains the development of technology-intensive industries |
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46 | (1) |
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3.4 Mid and Long-Term Structural Adjustment Outlook of China |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (2) |
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4 Energy Saving Target Accountability System |
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49 | (18) |
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4.1 Implementation Roadmap of the Accountability System |
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49 | (5) |
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4.1.1 Decomposition of energy saving targets |
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49 | (1) |
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4.1.2 Agreement for the accountability system |
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50 | (3) |
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4.1.3 Data collection and monitoring |
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53 | (1) |
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4.1.4 Review of energy saving targets |
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53 | (1) |
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4.2 Performance Review on the Target Accountability System |
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54 | (13) |
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4.2.1 Completion of energy saving targets |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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(2) Provincial governments |
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54 | (4) |
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4.2.2 The role accountability system played in energy saving during the 11th five year period |
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58 | (1) |
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(1) The development of energy saving management system at central and local level in the government |
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58 | (1) |
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(2) The target accountability system effectively incentivized local governments to pursue energy saving and emission reduction |
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59 | (1) |
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(3) The target accountability system induced energy efficiency improvement in enterprises |
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60 | (2) |
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4.2.3 Limitations of the target accountability system |
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62 | (1) |
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(1) Capacity of local governments does not match with their responsibilities |
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62 | (1) |
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(2) Local governments lacked efficient means for achieving structural energy saving |
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63 | (2) |
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(3) Political incentives could hardly translate into intrinsic motivation for energy saving |
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65 | (2) |
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67 | (14) |
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5.1 Chinese Enterprise's Response to Low-Carbon Development |
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67 | (6) |
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5.1.1 High energy-consuming enterprise's technological transformation reduced energy intensity |
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67 | (2) |
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5.1.2 Enterprises with obsolete production capacities exit the market |
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69 | (1) |
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5.1.3 Active investments in renewables market |
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70 | (1) |
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5.1.4 Accelerating upgrading of energy-saved home appliance |
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71 | (1) |
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5.1.5 Stepping into the market of energy services |
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72 | (1) |
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5.2 Factors and Mechanisms Affecting Energy Savings of Enterprises |
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73 | (8) |
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5.2.1 Constraints and incentives faced by enterprises |
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73 | (3) |
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5.2.2 Factors affecting enterprise's response |
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76 | (3) |
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5.2.3 Problems and shortcomings |
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79 | (2) |
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81 | (22) |
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6.1 Low-Carbon Financing Channels in China |
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82 | (4) |
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6.1.1 Government expenditure |
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82 | (1) |
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6.1.2 Green financing of commercial banks |
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83 | (1) |
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6.1.3 Low carbon financing of non-bank financial institutions |
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84 | (2) |
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6.1.4 Endogenous financing of enterprises |
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86 | (1) |
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6.2 Low Carbon Financing Mechanisms in China |
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86 | (5) |
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86 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Guarantee mechanism of international financial organizations |
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88 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Clean development mechanism (CDM) |
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89 | (2) |
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6.3 Low Carbon Financing Models in China and Relevant Financial Products |
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91 | (1) |
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6.4 China's Policies and Measures on Promoting Low Carbon Financing |
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92 | (2) |
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94 | (9) |
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97 | (6) |
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103 | (506) |
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105 | (110) |
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7.1 Low Carbon Development in the Energy Sector |
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105 | (17) |
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7.1.1 Power industry achieved significant reduction in terms of energy intensity and carbon emission intensity |
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106 | (2) |
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7.1.2 Changes of major energy consumption indicators of the power industry |
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108 | (1) |
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7.1.2.1 Gross coal consumption and net coal consumption of thermal generation |
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108 | (1) |
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7.1.2.2 Station service electricity consumption rate of power plants |
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109 | (1) |
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7.1.2.3 Average generation hours (capacity factor) |
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110 | (1) |
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110 | (2) |
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7.1.3 Energy mix and grid structure optimized |
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112 | (1) |
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7.1.3.1 Diversified energy mix |
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112 | (3) |
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7.1.3.2 Structural optimization of thermal units |
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115 | (1) |
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7.1.3.3 Grid structure adjustment |
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116 | (1) |
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7.1.4 Development of renewables |
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117 | (1) |
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7.1.4.1 China ranked number one on renewable energy development in 2009 |
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117 | (1) |
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7.1.4.2 The development of small hydro plants increased rural electrification rate |
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118 | (1) |
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7.1.4.3 Wind generation increased the fastest |
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119 | (1) |
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7.1.4.4 Solar power industry has grown strong |
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120 | (1) |
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121 | (1) |
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7.2 Policy and Institutional Analysis on Low Carbon Development of Power Sector |
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122 | (30) |
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7.2.1 Overview of low carbon development policies |
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122 | (1) |
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7.2.1.1 Policies on the closure of small thermal power plants |
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123 | (2) |
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7.2.1.2 Policies on development and application of low carbon energy technologies |
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125 | (1) |
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7.2.1.3 Renewables generation and nuclear development policies |
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126 | (1) |
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7.2.1.4 Policy on energy efficiency dispatch |
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126 | (1) |
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7.2.2 Policy analysis on closing small thermal power plants |
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126 | (1) |
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7.2.2.1 Policy changes for small thermal power plants |
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126 | (2) |
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7.2.2.2 Implementation of the policy on closing small thermal power plants |
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128 | (2) |
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7.2.2.3 Implementation and performance |
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130 | (3) |
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7.2.2.4 Obstacles during the implementation of closing policies |
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133 | (2) |
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7.2.3 Policy analysis for development and application of low carbon energy technologies |
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135 | (1) |
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7.2.3.1 Policy's direct influence on the development of low carbon technology |
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135 | (1) |
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7.2.3.2 Policy's indirect influence on development of low carbon energy technology |
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136 | (6) |
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7.2.3.3 The impact of low carbon policies on low carbon development |
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142 | (2) |
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7.2.4 Institutional analysis of low carbon development in the power sector |
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144 | (1) |
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7.2.4.1 Stakeholders in low carbon development of the power sector |
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144 | (5) |
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7.2.4.2 Institutional analysis of policies on closing small thermal power |
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149 | (2) |
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151 | (1) |
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7.3 Policy and Institution Analysis on Low Carbon Development of Renewable Energy |
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152 | (28) |
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7.3.1 Main supporting policies for the renewable energy law |
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153 | (1) |
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7.3.1.1 Implementation of the Medium and Long-term Development Plan for Renewable Energy |
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153 | (2) |
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7.3.1.2 Implementation of the measures on grid company full purchase of electricity from renewable energy |
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155 | (1) |
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7.3.1.3 Implementation of interim measures on revenue allocation from renewable surcharges |
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156 | (1) |
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7.3.1.4 Implementation of interim measures on the renewable energy development special fund |
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157 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Policy on financial subsidy for renewables |
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158 | (1) |
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7.3.2.1 Policy on industrialization and R&D of renewable energy equipment |
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158 | (1) |
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7.3.2.2 Subsidy for off-grid renewable generation project |
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159 | (3) |
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7.3.2.3 Golden sun program |
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162 | (1) |
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7.3.3 Subsidized electricity price for renewable generation |
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163 | (1) |
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7.3.3.1 Feed-in tariff for wind generation |
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164 | (1) |
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7.3.3.2 Feed-in tariff for solar generation |
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165 | (2) |
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7.3.4 Institutional analysis of renewable energy development |
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167 | (1) |
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7.3.4.1 Renewable portfolio standard |
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167 | (1) |
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7.3.4.2 Compulsory grid connection |
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168 | (1) |
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7.3.4.3 Categorized feed-in tariff |
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169 | (1) |
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170 | (1) |
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7.3.4.5 Special fund system |
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171 | (1) |
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7.3.5 Case Study: Analysis on institutions for wind power |
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172 | (1) |
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7.3.5.1 Renewable Energy Law created good policy environment for wind power development |
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172 | (1) |
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7.3.5.2 Feed-in tariff reduced the risks for wind power development |
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173 | (1) |
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7.3.5.3 Compulsory market share targets motivated large energy enterprises to vigorously pursue wind power |
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173 | (2) |
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7.3.5.4 The program approval system lacks disciplinary mechanism and resulted in the over-heated development of wind power |
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175 | (1) |
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7.3.5.5 Local government's urge for economic growth also stimulated wind power development |
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176 | (1) |
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7.3.5.6 Expected increasing profits and a series of domestic and international favorable policies also drove the wind power development |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (2) |
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7.4 Policies on Low Carbon Development of Nuclear Energy |
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180 | (35) |
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7.4.1 Nuclear development accelerated and significantly contributed to energy saving and emission reduction |
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180 | (1) |
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7.4.1.1 Increasing nuclear capacity and generation |
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180 | (1) |
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7.4.1.2 Achievements on energy saving and emission reduction were significant |
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181 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Nuclear power development policy: Mid and long-term plan for nuclear power development 2005-2020 |
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182 | (1) |
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7.4.2.1 Promulgation of the Plan is an important milestone in the development of China's nuclear power |
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183 | (1) |
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7.4.2.2 Supporting policies: The program for standard PWR nuclear power plant system and rules of standard construction of nuclear power |
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184 | (1) |
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185 | (6) |
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191 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Institutions for nuclear development |
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192 | (1) |
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7.4.3.1 Institutional factors that influenced China's nuclear power development |
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192 | (2) |
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7.4.3.2 Nuclear power faces good opportunity in the 11th five year period |
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194 | (1) |
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195 | (20) |
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215 | (98) |
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8.1 Performance Evaluation of Manufacturing |
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215 | (19) |
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8.1.1 Energy performance and energy savings |
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216 | (8) |
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8.1.2 Two pillars of performance: Technology development and structural adjustment |
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224 | (7) |
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8.1.3 Cleaner production and recycling economy |
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231 | (1) |
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8.1.4 Heavy investment in energy-saving and emission reduction |
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232 | (2) |
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8.2 Energy Utilization in Energy-Intensive Industries |
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234 | (39) |
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234 | (7) |
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8.2.2 Building materials industry |
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241 | (12) |
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8.2.3 Chemistry and chemical industry |
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253 | (12) |
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8.2.4 Nonferrous metal industry |
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265 | (8) |
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8.3 Policy Evaluation of Manufacturing Sector |
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273 | (22) |
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8.3.1 Top-1,000 enterprises energy conservation program |
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277 | (4) |
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8.3.2 Ten key energy conservation projects |
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281 | (6) |
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8.3.3 Elimination of backward production capacity |
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287 | (4) |
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8.3.4 Energy performance contracting (EPC) |
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291 | (4) |
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295 | (18) |
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8.4.1 Reasons for governmental guidance |
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296 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Analysis of industrial energy conservation governance mechanism |
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297 | (8) |
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305 | (8) |
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313 | (104) |
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9.1 Low Carbon Performance in the Building Sector |
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313 | (33) |
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9.1.1 Growth rate of CO2 emission in China's building sector declines apparently, with lower energy intensity than that of developed countries |
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314 | (9) |
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9.1.2 Better technology structure and enhanced envelopes contributing to declining energy intensity for district heating system in northern cities |
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323 | (5) |
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9.1.3 Energy structural optimization and changing life styles lead to slight increase of energy consumption intensity in urban residential buildings |
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328 | (6) |
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9.1.4 Rising proportion of large-scale commercial buildings lead to continuous increase of the total energy consumption in commercial sector |
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334 | (5) |
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9.1.5 Lowering proportion of renewable energy, and growth rate of rural energy consumption exceeding that of building floor areas in rural areas |
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339 | (4) |
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343 | (3) |
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9.2 Evaluation of Policies in the Building Sector |
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346 | (49) |
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9.2.1 Better developed policy system leads to enormous energy-saving capacity |
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346 | (7) |
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9.2.2 Policy evaluation for energy consumption of district heating system in northern cities |
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353 | (8) |
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9.2.3 Policy evaluation for energy consumption of urban residential buildings |
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361 | (11) |
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9.2.4 Policy evaluation for energy consumption of commercial buildings |
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372 | (12) |
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9.2.5 Policy evaluation for energy consumption in rural areas |
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384 | (9) |
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393 | (2) |
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9.3 Analysis on Policy Mechanism in Building Sector |
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395 | (22) |
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9.3.1 Analysis on environment of building energy policies in the context of urbanization |
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395 | (7) |
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9.3.2 Analysis on heating reform policy |
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402 | (7) |
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9.3.3 Analysis on EPC policy in the building sector |
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409 | (8) |
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417 | (49) |
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10.1 Performance of Energy Consumption and Carbon Emission in Transportation Sector |
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417 | (16) |
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10.1.1 Though energy consumption and carbon emission were raised in transportation sector, the growth rate was slowed down |
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418 | (2) |
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10.1.2 Energy consumption intensity in transportation sector is reduced and energy saving effect is significant |
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420 | (1) |
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(1) The growth rate of energy consumption and carbon emission in transportation is lower than that of production in transportation |
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420 | (1) |
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(2) The energy consumption intensity of most modes in transportation is lowered |
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421 | (7) |
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10.1.3 Quick growth in transportation demand and rising proportion of traffic modes with high energy consumption |
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428 | (2) |
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(1) Growing domestic passenger and freight turnover volume of traffic in China |
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430 | (2) |
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(2) A trend toward transportation modes of high consumption per transport-unit |
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432 | (1) |
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10.2 Analysis on Major Policies |
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433 | (33) |
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10.2.1 Classification and key points of energy saving policies |
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433 | (4) |
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10.2.2 Urban public transport priority |
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437 | (1) |
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437 | (4) |
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(2) Effects of public transport priority policies |
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441 | (17) |
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(3) Policy and system analysis |
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458 | (5) |
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(4) Conclusions and suggestions |
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463 | (3) |
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10.2.3 Fuel economy standards |
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466 | (1) |
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466 | (6) |
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2 Effects of fuel economy policies |
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472 | (4) |
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3 Fuel economy policy analyses |
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476 | (5) |
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4 Fuel economy institutional analyses |
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481 | (8) |
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489 | (24) |
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492 | (1) |
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(1) The replacement of civil aviation by rail passenger transport has been reflected in local areas |
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492 | (1) |
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(2) Political analysis of trail transport development |
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493 | (5) |
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(3) Institutional analysis of the development of rail transit |
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498 | (1) |
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499 | (14) |
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11 Agriculture and Forestry |
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513 | (96) |
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11.1 Performance of Greenhouse Gas Emission |
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513 | (19) |
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11.1.1 Significant decrease in energy consumption and the direct energy-related CO2 emission |
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514 | (1) |
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(1) Decrease in energy consumption and related CO2 emission |
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514 | (2) |
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(2) Significant decrease in energy consumption intensity and CO2 emission intensity |
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516 | (2) |
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11.1.2 CH4 and N2O emission kept stable for a long time |
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518 | (2) |
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11.1.3 Continual increase of embedded carbon emission from agricultural means of production |
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520 | (2) |
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11.1.4 Chemical fertilizer is the main contributor to the increase of greenhouse gas emission in agriculture and forestry sector |
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522 | (1) |
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(1) Chemical fertilizer causes the increase of greenhouse gas emission in agriculture and forestry sector |
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522 | (1) |
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(2) Greenhouse gas emission intensity per unit chemical fertilizer is decreasing |
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523 | (1) |
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(3) Chemical fertilizer-related greenhouse gas emission intensity per unit crop output is increasing |
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524 | (3) |
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11.1.5 Terrestrial carbon sink increases significantly |
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527 | (1) |
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(1) Forestry carbon sink stock increases rapidly |
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527 | (2) |
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(2) Carbon sink of agricultural soil increases |
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529 | (3) |
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(3) Grassland's carbon sink still needs to be explored |
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532 | (1) |
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11.2 Policy Evaluation of Greenhouse Gas Emission |
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532 | (47) |
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11.2.1 Six major forest projects |
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535 | (1) |
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(1) Goals of the six major forest projects |
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535 | (3) |
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(2) Construction of five forestry projects |
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538 | (1) |
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(3) Carbon sequestration effect of the five major forest projects |
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538 | (2) |
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11.2.2 Conservation tillage/straw return management |
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540 | (1) |
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(1) Policies concerning conservation tillage/straw return management |
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541 | (7) |
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(2) Current situation of conservation tillage/straw return management |
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548 | (1) |
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(3) Carbon sequestration of conservation tillage/straw return management |
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548 | (1) |
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11.2.3 Agricultural mechanization |
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549 | (1) |
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(1) Policies concerning agricultural mechanization |
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550 | (9) |
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(2) The effectiveness of agricultural mechanization |
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559 | (3) |
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(3) Energy-saving and emission-reduction of agricultural machinery |
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562 | (1) |
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11.2.4 Soil testing and formulated fertilization |
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562 | (1) |
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(1) Soil testing and formulated fertilization policies |
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562 | (10) |
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(2) The promotion effect of soil testing and formulated fertilization |
|
|
572 | (5) |
|
(3) Greenhouse gas emission reduction since the implementation of soil testing and formulated fertilization policy |
|
|
577 | (2) |
|
11.3 Institutional Analysis on Low Carbon Development in Agriculture and Forestry |
|
|
579 | (30) |
|
11.3.1 Institutional background |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
(1) Acceleration of agricultural modernization |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
(2) Urbanization accelerated and farmers' income mainly from nonagricultural activities |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
(3) From "Agriculture Supporting Industry" to "Industry Nurturing Agriculture" |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
(4) Food security and increase of farmers' income still a main task |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
(5) Resources and environment protection as a major goal in the development of agriculture and forestry |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
11.3.2 Institutional analysis |
|
|
584 | (3) |
|
(1) Returning the reclaimed lands to forests |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
(3) Agricultural mechanization |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
(4) Soil test fertilization |
|
|
590 | (3) |
|
|
|
593 | (16) |
|
|
|
609 | (42) |
|
12 Low Carbon Development in Baoding: Plans and Actions |
|
|
611 | (40) |
|
12.1 Background Introduction |
|
|
611 | (5) |
|
12.1.1 Domestic and international environment for low carbon development |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
12.1.2 "Double 30" targets in Hebei Province |
|
|
613 | (3) |
|
12.2 Building China's Electric Valley and the Solar Energy City |
|
|
616 | (5) |
|
12.2.1 The concept of China Electric Valley and its follow-up construction |
|
|
616 | (3) |
|
12.2.2 The construction of the solar energy city |
|
|
619 | (2) |
|
12.3 Introduction to the Low Carbon Development Concept |
|
|
621 | (4) |
|
12.3.1 Cooperation with World Wildlife Fund |
|
|
621 | (2) |
|
12.3.2 Plans for low carbon development needed |
|
|
623 | (2) |
|
12.4 Goals and Phases for Baoding's Low Carbon Development Program |
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
12.5 Low Carbon Development Plan in the Production Sector |
|
|
626 | (10) |
|
12.5.1 Basic principles and approaches |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
12.5.2 The goals for reducing carbon emission |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
12.5.3 Plans for structural adjustment |
|
|
628 | (5) |
|
12.5.4 The plans for energy conservation and carbon reduction |
|
|
633 | (2) |
|
12.5.5 The plan for energy structure adjustment |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
12.6 Low Carbon Development in the Consumption-Department |
|
|
636 | (9) |
|
12.6.1 Major principles and approaches |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
12.6.2 Goals for the reduction of carbon emission |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
12.6.3 Plans for energy conservation in buildings |
|
|
638 | (2) |
|
12.6.4 Plans for central heating supply |
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
12.6.5 Energy conservation in rural residence |
|
|
641 | (2) |
|
12.6.6 Energy conservation in traffic sector |
|
|
643 | (2) |
|
12.7 Plan of Carbon Sink Project |
|
|
645 | (3) |
|
|
|
648 | (3) |
|
|
|
651 | (30) |
|
13 Energy Consumption and Sum of Carbon Dioxide Emission |
|
|
653 | (8) |
|
14 Energy and Efficiency of Carbon Dioxide Emission |
|
|
661 | (12) |
|
15 Structure of Energy Consumption |
|
|
673 | (4) |
|
16 Comparison among Countries |
|
|
677 | (4) |
| Appendix 1 Summary of Low Carbon Technologies |
|
681 | (38) |
| Appendix 2 Explanations of Terms |
|
719 | (6) |
| Appendix 3 Unit Comparison Table and Acronyms |
|
725 | |
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