Klienditugi: 7440010 (E-R 10-18)

Abi | Registreeri | Logi sisse

E-raamat: Handbook of Cleaning in Semiconductor Manufacturing - Fundamental and Applications: Fundamentals and Applications [Wiley Online]

Edited by Richard F. Reidy, Edited by Karen A. Reinhardt

Formaat: 614 pages
Sari: Wiley-Scrivener
Ilmumisaeg: 04-Feb-2011
Kirjastus: Wiley-Scrivener
ISBN-10: 1118071743
ISBN-13: 9781118071748

Teised raamatud teemal:

Wiley Online
Hind: 336,17 €*
* hind, mis tagab piiramatu üheaegsete kasutajate arvuga ligipääsu piiramatuks ajaks

Formaat: 614 pages
Sari: Wiley-Scrivener
Ilmumisaeg: 04-Feb-2011
Kirjastus: Wiley-Scrivener
ISBN-10: 1118071743
ISBN-13: 9781118071748

Teised raamatud teemal:

Rohkem infot Wiley Online kohta

Raamatu kodulehekülg: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118071748

Provides an In-depth discussion of surface conditioning for semiconductor applications

The Handbook of Cleaning for Semiconductor Manufacturing: Fundamentals and Applications provides an in-depth discussion of surface conditioning for semiconductor applications. The fundamental physics and chemistry associated with wet processing is reviewed as well as surface and colloidal aspects of cleaning and etching.

Topics covered in this new reference include:

Front end line (FEOL) and back end of line (BEOL) cleaning applications such as high-k/metal gate post-etch cleaning and pore sealing, high-dose implant stripping and cleaning, and germanium, and silicon passivation Formulation development practices, methodology and a new directions are presented including chemicals used for preventing corrosion of copper lines, cleaning aluminium lines, reclaiming wafers, and water bonding, as well as the filtering and recirculating of chemicals including reuse and recycling Wetting, cleaning, and drying of features, such as high aspect ratio features and hydrophilic surface states, especially how to dry without watermarks, the abilities to wet hydrophobic surfaces and to remove liquid from deep features The chemical reactions and mechanisms of silicon dioxide etching with hydrofluoric acid, particle removal with ammonium hydroxide/hydrogen peroxide mixture, and metal removal with hydrochloric acid

The Handbook of Cleaning for Semiconductor Manufacturing: Fundamentals and Applications is a valuable resource for any engineer or manager associated with using or supplying cleaning and contamination free technologies for semiconductor manufacturing. Engineers working for semiconductor manufacturing, capital equipment, chemicals, or other industries that assures cleanliness of chemicals, material, and equipment in the manufacturing area will also find this handbook an indispensible reference.

Foreword

xvii

Introduction

xxi

Part 1 Fundamentals

1 Surface and Colloidal Chemical Aspects of Wet Cleaning

(36)

Srini Raghavan

Manish Keswani

Nandini Venkataraman

1.1 Introduction to Surface Chemical Aspects of Cleaning

(1)

1.2 Chemistry of Solid-Water Interface

(7)

1.2.1 Surface Charging of Oxide Films in Aqueous Solutions

(2)

1.2.2 Surface Charging of Silicon Nitride Films in Aqueous Solutions

(1)

1.2.3 Electrified Interfaces: The Double Layer and Zeta Potential

(1)

1.2.3.1 Oxide Films and Particles

(3)

1.2.3.2 Nitride Films and Particles

(1)

1.3 Particulate Contamination: Theory and Measurements

(6)

1.3.1 Effect of the Electric Double Layer Formation on Particulate Contamination

(2)

1.3.2 Direct Measurement of Interaction Forces between Particles and Surfaces

(4)

1.4 Influence of Surface Electrical Charges on Metal Ion Adsorption

(5)

1.5 Wettability of Surfaces

(4)

1.5.1 Surface Tension and Surface Energy

(1)

1.5.2 Adsorption Characteristics and Wettability Modification

(4)

1.6 High Aspect Ratio Cleaning: Narrow Structures

(4)

1.6.1 Rate of Liquid Penetration into Narrow Structures

(3)

1.6.2 Enhancement of Liquid Penetration into Narrow Structures

(1)

1.7 Surface Tension Gradient: Application to Drying

(5)

1.7.1 Isopropyl Alcohol Surface Tension Gradient Drying

(1)

1.7.2 Water Layer After Drying

(1)

1.7.3 Alternate Chemicals for Drying

(3)

1.8 Summary

(4)

References

(4)

2 The Chemistry of Wet Cleaning

(56)

D. Martin Knotter

2.1 Introduction to Aqueous Cleaning

(2)

2.1.1 Background of Aqueous Cleaning Chemistry

(2)

2.2 Overview of Aqueous Cleaning Processes

(1)

2.2.1 RCA Cleaning

(1)

2.2.2 Modified RCA Processes

(1)

2.2.3 Other Cleaning Processes

(1)

2.3 The SC-1 Clean or APM

(25)

2.3.1 Electrochemistry of SC-1

(3)

2.3.2 Molecular Mechanism

(2)

2.3.3 Etching Rate in APM

(1)

2.3.4 Concentration Variations

(4)

2.3.5 Concentration Monitoring and Control

(2)

2.3.6 APM-related Surface Roughening

(1)

2.3.6.1 Vapor Etching

(2)

2.3.6.2 Galvanic Etching and Masking

(4)

2.3.6.3 Catalyzed H2O2 Depletion

(2)

2.3.7 Metal-ion Contamination and Complexing Agents

(3)

2.3.8 Diluted APM

(1)

2.4 The SC-2 clean or HPM

(4)

2.4.1 Particle Deposition

(1)

2.4.2 Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition in SC-2

(2)

2.4.3 Hydrochloric Acid Fumes

(1)

2.4.4 Diluted HCI

(1)

2.5 Sulfuric Acid-Hydrogen Peroxide Mixture

(9)

2.5.1 Stripping and Cleaning Mechanism

(1)

2.5.1.1 Dissolution Reaction

(1)

2.5.1.2 Discoloration Reaction

(2)

2.5.2 Particulate and Sulfate Contamination

(3)

2.5.3 Alternatives

(1)

2.5.3.1 Modification of SPM

(1)

2.5.3.2 Sulfur Trioxide

(1)

2.6 Hydrofluoric Acid

(15)

2.6.1 Hydrogen Passivation

(5)

2.6.2 Etching Rate Control

(1)

2.6.3 Bath Monitoring

(1)

2.6.3.1 Conductivity

(2)

2.6.3.2 Near Infrared

(1)

2.6.4 Contamination

(2)

Acknowledgments

(1)

References

(4)

3 The Chemistry of Wet Etching

(48)

D. Martin Knotter

3.1 Introduction and Overview

(4)

3.1.1 Definition of Etching

(1)

3.1.2 The Physics of Wet Etching

(2)

3.1.2.1 Difference in Bond Strength

(1)

3.1.2.2 Absence of the Proper Reactant

(1)

3.1.2.3 Formation of Inhibiting Coatings

(1)

3.2 Silicon Dioxide Etching

(12)

3.2.1 Hydrofluoric Acid Etching

100

(9)

3.2.2 Water-based Etching

109

(2)

3.3 Silicon Etching

111

(11)

3.3.1 Hydrofluoric Acid and Nitric Acid Mixture

113

(3)

3.3.2 Potassium Hydroxide and Alcohol Mixtures

116

(4)

3.3.3 Tetramethyl Ammonium Hydroxide Etching

120

(2)

3.4 Silicon Nitride Etching

122

(21)

3.4.1 Hydrofluoric Acid-based Etching Solutions

123

(4)

3.4.2 Hot Phosphoric Acid Etching

127

(11)

3.4.3 Water Etching

138

(1)

Acknowledgements

139

(1)

References

139

(4)

4 Surface Phenomena: Rinsing and Drying

143

(26)

Karen A. Reinhardt

Richard F. Reidy

John A. Marsella

4.1 The Surface Phenomena of Rinsing and Drying

143

(1)

4.1.1 Introduction to Surface Phenomena in Rinsing

144

(1)

4.1.2 Introduction to Surface Phenomena in Drying

144

(1)

4.2 Overview of Rinsing

144

(14)

4.2.1 Wafer Charging

145

(1)

4.2.1.1 Charging from Immersion in Water

145

(1)

4.2.1.2 Wafer Charging During Spinning

146

(2)

4.2.2 Wetting a Surface

148

(1)

4.2.2.1 Surface Energy and Surface Tension

148

(2)

4.2.2.2 Wetting and Rinsing Small Features

150

(1)

4.2.2.3 Wetting Rough Surfaces

151

(3)

4.2.3 Silica in Water

154

(1)

4.2.3.1 Oxidation of Silicon in Water

155

(2)

4.2.3.2 Precipitation of Silica in Water

157

(1)

4.3 Overview of Drying

158

(11)

4.3.1 The Chemistry and Physics of Watermarks

158

(1)

4.3.1.1 Watermarks Formation

158

(3)

4.3.1.2 Watermarks on Wafers Caused by Cleaning

161

(1)

4.3.1.3 Watermarks on Wafers Caused by Immersion Lithography

162

(1)

4.3.2 Drying High Aspect Ratio Features and Stiction

162

(2)

4.3.3 Adhesion of Particles during Rinsing and Drying

164

(2)

Acknowledgements

166

(1)

References

166

(3)

5 Fundamental Design of Chemical Formulations

169

(24)

Robert J. Rovito

Michael B. Korzenski

Ping Jiang

Karen A. Reinhardt

5.1 Introduction and Overview

169

(1)

5.2 Historical Development of Formulations for the Integrated Circuit Industry

170

(5)

5.2.1 Chemical Formulation Generations

170

(1)

5.2.2 First Generation Oxidizing Chemicals

171

(1)

5.2.3 Second Generation Solvent-based Formulations

172

(1)

5.2.4 Third Generation Amine-based Formulations

173

(1)

5.2.5 Hydroxylamine Photoresist Residue Removers

173

(1)

5.2.6 Fluoride-containing Strippers and Post-etch Residue Removers

174

(1)

5.2.7 Amine Post-etch Residue Removers for Copper

174

(1)

5.3 Mechanism of Stripping, Cleaning, and Particle Removal

175

(2)

5.4 Components and Additives in Chemical Formulations

177

(3)

5.4.1 Base Chemical and Active Ingredient

177

(1)

5.4.2 Buffering Agents

177

(1)

5.4.3 Surfactants

178

(2)

5.4.4 Chelating Agents

180

(1)

5.4.5 Oxygen Scavenging or Passivating Agent

180

(1)

5.5 Creating Chemical Formulations

180

(8)

5.5.1 Overview of Techniques Used in Creating Chemical Formulations

181

(1)

5.5.2 Formulation Design Models and Parameters

181

(1)

5.5.2.1 Solubility Parameters

182

(2)

5.5.2.2 Selective Solvency

184

(1)

5.5.2.3 Kinetic Salt Effects

185

(1)

5.5.3 Practical Considerations

185

(1)

5.5.3.1 Bath Life and Bath Life Extension

185

(2)

5.5.3.2 Materials Compatibility

187

(1)

5.5.3.3 Tool Configuration - Single Wafer vs. Batch Processing

188

(1)

5.5.3.4 Rinsability

188

(1)

5.5.3.5 Shipping and Shelf Life

188

(1)

5.5.3.6 Purity Level

188

(1)

5.6 Environmental, Safety, and Health Aspects

188

(5)

Acknowledgments

190

(1)

References

190

(3)

6 Filtering, Recirculating, Reuse, and Recycling of Chemicals

193

(46)

Barry Gotlinsky

Kevin T. Pate

Donald C. Grant

6.1 Overview of Wet Chemical Contamination Control

193

(2)

6.1.1 Contamination Control Challenges Relating to Chemical Distribution

194

(1)

6.1.2 Use of Filtration to Control Particle Contamination

194

(1)

6.1.3 Metrology Techniques for Particles

194

(1)

6.1.4 Metrology Techniques for Dissolved Contaminants

195

(1)

6.2 Bulk Chemical Distribution for Wet Cleaning Tools

195

(7)

6.2.1 Bulk Chemical Delivery Systems

195

(1)

6.2.2 Bulk Chemical Delivery System Design

196

(1)

6.2.3 Particulate Purity Control for Bulk Chemical Delivery Systems

197

(3)

6.2.4 Metallic Ion Purity Control for Bulk Chemical Delivery Systems

200

(1)

6.2.5 Organic Purity Control for Bulk Chemical Delivery Systems

201

(1)

6.2.6 Chemical Delivery Sub-systems

202

(1)

6.3 Chemical Distribution, Filtering, and Recirculation Requirements for Wet Cleaning Tools

202

(4)

6.3.1 Recirculating Immersion Tools

202

(2)

6.3.2 Single Wafer Tools

204

(2)

6.3.3 Wafer Drying

206

(1)

6.4 Contamination Control Metrology

206

(7)

6.4.1 Particle Measurement for Chemical Fluids

206

(1)

6.4.1.1 Particle Measurement Methods

206

(4)

6.4.1.2 Particle Sampling Locations

210

(1)

6.4.2 Chemical Purity of Chemical Fluids

210

(1)

6.4.2.1 Inorganic Contaminant Measurement Methods

211

(1)

6.4.2.2 Inorganic Contaminant Sampling

212

(1)

6.4.3 Chemical Handling System Component Purity

212

(1)

6.5 Effects of Contamination

213

(4)

6.5.1 Particulate Contamination

213

(2)

6.5.2 Ionic and Metallic Contamination

215

(1)

6.5.3 Organic Contamination

215

(2)

6.6 Filtration

217

(13)

6.6.1 Filtration Mechanisms

217

(3)

6.6.2 Filtration Design and Materials

220

(5)

6.6.3 Characterization of Filter Performance

225

(4)

6.6.4 Filtration for Bulk Chemical Delivery Systems and Wet Clean Tools

229

(1)

6.7 Chemical Blending, Recycling, and Reuse

230

(4)

6.7.1 Chemical Blending

230

(1)

6.7.1.1 On-site blending case - 50:1 diluted HF from 49 wt% HF

231

(1)

6.7.2 Reprocessing and On-site Waste Treatment

232

(1)

6.7.3 On-site Treatment of Waste Streams

233

(1)

6.7.4 Deionized Water Reuse and Reclamation

234

(1)

6.8 Summary

234

(5)

References

235

(4)

Part 2 Applications

7 Cleaning Challenges of High-K/Metal Gate Structures

239

(46)

Muhammad M. Hussain

Denis Shamiryan

Vasile Paraschiv

Kenichi Sano

Karen A. Reinhardt

7.1 Introduction and Overview of High-K/Metal Gate Surface Preparation

239

(14)

7.1.1 High-K Dielectric Evolution

240

(1)

7.1.2 Metal Gate Evolution

241

(2)

7.1.3 High-K/Metal Gate Integration and Structures

243

(1)

7.1.3.1 Gate-First Process

243

(2)

7.1.3.2 Gate-Last Process

245

(3)

7.1.3.3 Comparison between Gate-First and Gate-Last Scheme

248

(3)

7.1.3.4 Fully Silicided Process

251

(2)

7.2 Surface Preparation and Cleaning

253

(8)

7.2.1 Surface Cleaning Challenges Prior to High-K Deposition

253

(1)

7.2.2 Pre-interfacial Oxide Formation Cleaning

253

(1)

7.2.3 Interfacial Oxide Formation

254

(1)

7.2.3.1 Hydroxyl-terminated Surface

254

(1)

7.2.3.2 Interfacial Oxide Formation

255

(3)

7.2.3.3 Thermal Oxidation

258

(1)

7.2.3.4 Nitrided Surfaces

259

(1)

7.2.3.5 Hydrogen-terminated Surface

259

(1)

7.2.4 High-K Deposition on Germanium

260

(1)

7.3 Wet Film Removal

261

(3)

7.3.1 First Metal Gate Removal

262

(2)

7.3.2 Replacement Gate Removal

264

(1)

7.4 High-K Removal

264

(9)

7.4.1 Challenges of Removing High-K Material after Etching

264

(1)

7.4.2 Removal of High-K Dielectric

265

(1)

7.4.3 Dry Removal

266

(3)

7.4.4 Wet Removal

269

(3)

7.4.5 Corrosion

272

(1)

7.4.6 Combination of Wet and Dry Removal

272

(1)

7.5 Resist Stripping and Residue Removal

273

(12)

7.5.1 Plasma Stripping

274

(2)

7.5.2 Wet Stripping

276

(2)

7.5.3 Cleanliness Prior to Anneal

278

(1)

Acknowledgments

278

(1)

References

278

(7)

8 High Dose Implant Stripping

285

(42)

Karen A. Reinhardt

Michael B. Korzenski

8.1 Introduction and Overview of High Dose Implant Stripping

285

(14)

8.1.1 High Dose Implant

286

(2)

8.1.2 Photoresist Modifications Due to Implant

288

(4)

8.1.3 Post-photoresist Removal Residue

292

(3)

8.1.4 Silicon Loss and Silicon Dioxide Formation and Loss

295

(3)

8.1.5 Dopant Deactivation

298

(1)

8.2 High Dose Implant Cleaning and Stripping Processes

299

(2)

8.2.1 Process Requirements

299

(1)

8.2.2 Process Comparison: Wet and Dry

300

(1)

8.3 Plasma Processing

301

(6)

8.3.1 Photoresist Popping

301

(3)

8.3.2 Plasma-induced Damage

304

(1)

8.3.2.1 Charging Damage

304

(1)

8.3.2.2 Physical Damage

305

(1)

8.3.3 Stripping Process Chemistry

305

(2)

8.4 Wet Processing

307

(10)

8.4.1 Wet Processing after Plasma Processing

308

(1)

8.4.2 Wet-only Processing Background

308

(1)

8.4.3 Aqueous Wet-only Processing

309

(3)

8.4.4 Semi-aqueous and Solvent Processes

312

(1)

8.4.4.1 Selective Passivation

313

(2)

8.4.4.2 Corrosion-free Compositions

315

(1)

8.4.4.3 Crust Dissolution

316

(1)

8.4.4.4 Corrosion Inhibitors

316

(1)

8.5 Other Processing

317

(10)

8.5.1 Water-assisted and Solvent-based Crust Removal

317

(1)

8.5.2 Supercritical Processing

317

(3)

8.5.3 High-pressure Processing

320

(1)

8.5.4 Cryoaerosol Process

320

(2)

Acknowledgments

322

(1)

References

322

(5)

9 Aluminum Interconnect Cleaning and Drying

327

(28)

David J. Maloney

9.1 Introduction to Aluminum Interconnect Cleaning

327

(2)

9.2 Source of Post-Etch Residues Requiring Wet Cleaning

329

(9)

9.2.1 Post-tungsten Plug Etchback Cleaning

330

(1)

9.2.2 Post-aluminum Line Etch Cleaning

331

(5)

9.2.3 Post-via Etch Cleaning

336

(2)

9.3 Chemistry Considerations for Cleans Following Etching

338

(9)

9.3.1 Fluoride-based Cleaning Formulations

340

(2)

9.3.1.1 Applications

342

(1)

9.3.1.2 Process Conditions

343

(1)

9.3.2 Cleaning with Hydroxylamine

344

(2)

9.3.2.1 Applications

346

(1)

9.3.2.2 Process Conditions

346

(1)

9.4 Rinsing/Drying and Equipment Considerations

347

(3)

9.4.1 Rinsing/Drying

347

(2)

9.4.2 Equipment

349

(1)

9.5 Alternative and Emerging Cleaning Technologies

350

(5)

Acknowledgements

351

(1)

References

351

(4)

10 Low-k/Cu Cleaning and Drying

355

(40)

Karen A. Reinhardt

Richard F. Reidy

Jerome Daviot

10.1 Introduction and Overview

355

(4)

10.1.1 Copper Interconnects: Background and Applications

356

(1)

10.1.2 Low-K Dielectrics: Background and Applications

356

(1)

10.1.3 Copper and Low-k Integration

357

(2)

10.2 Stripping and Post-etch Residue Removal

359

(9)

10.2.1 Plasma Post-etch Stripping, Cleaning, Residue Removal, and Passivation

362

(3)

10.2.2 Wet Post-etch Cleaning and Residue Removal and Drying

365

(1)

10.2.2.1 Dilute Hydrofluoric Acid

365

(1)

10.2.2.2 Semi-aqueous and Solvent Cleaning

366

(1)

10.2.2.3 Fluoride-containing Aqueous Formulations

367

(1)

10.2.2.4 Acidic Aqueous Formulations

367

(1)

10.2.2.5 Semi-aqueous Alkaline Formulations

367

(1)

10.2.2.6 Near-neutral Aqueous Formulations

368

(1)

10.3 Pore Sealing and Plasma Damage Repair

368

(5)

10.3.1 Pore Sealing

368

(1)

10.3.1.1 Plasma Treatments

369

(1)

10.3.1.2 Thin Sealing Layers

370

(1)

10.3.1.3 Graded Pores

370

(1)

10.3.1.4 Chemical Modification

370

(1)

10.3.1.5 Determination of Pore Sealing Effectiveness

371

(1)

10.3.2 Plasma Damage Repair

372

(1)

10.4 Post-chemical Mechanical Polishing Cleaning

373

(22)

10.4.1 Post-CMP Cleaning Defectivity Challenges

373

(1)

10.4.1.1 Corrosion

373

(3)

10.4.1.2 Particulate Contamination Defectivity

376

(1)

10.4.1.3 Metallic Contaminants

377

(1)

10.4.1.4 Watermarks and Stains

378

(1)

10.4.1.5 Detrimental Effects on Low-k Dielectric: Cracks and Delamination

379

(1)

10.4.1.6 Surface Conditioning and Material Integrity

380

(1)

10.4.2 Post-CMP Cleaning: Processes and Formulations

380

(1)

10.4.1.7 Particle Removal

381

(4)

10.4.1.8 Megasonic

385

(1)

10.4.1.9 Brush Scrubbing

386

(1)

10.4.1.10 Corrosion Prevention

387

(2)

10.4.3 Cost Effectiveness and Environmentally Friendly Processing

389

(1)

References

389

(6)

11 Corrosion and Passivation of Copper

395

(34)

Darryl W. Peters

11.1 Introduction and Overview

395

(1)

11.2 Copper Corrosion

396

(7)

11.2.1 Pourbaix and Stability Diagrams

396

(3)

11.2.2 Copper Corrosion and Oxidation

399

(1)

11.2.2.1 Oxidation and Corrosion with Respect to pH

399

(1)

11.2.2.2 Galvanic and Photo-induced Corrosion

400

(2)

11.2.2.3 Examples of Corrosion - Post-etch and Post-CMP

402

(1)

11.2.3 Corrosion Inhibitor Efficiency

402

(1)

11.3 Copper Corrosion Inhibitors

403

(17)

11.3.1 Azole Corrosion Inhibitors

404

(1)

11.3.1.1 Benzotriazole

404

(2)

11.3.1.2 Carboxybenzotriazol

406

(1)

11.3.1.3 5-aminotetrazole

406

(1)

11.3.1.4 1,2,4-triazole

406

(1)

11.3.1.5 Influence of Solution pH

407

(5)

11.3.1.6 Process Results of Azole Cleaning Solutions

412

(2)

11.3.2 Oxygen Scavengers

414

(1)

11.3.3 Diols, Triols, and Carboxylic Acids

415

(1)

11.3.3.1 Corrosion Inhibition Efficiency

415

(5)

11.3.4 Mercaptans

420

(1)

11.4 Copper Cleaning Formulations

420

(9)

11.4.1 Post-etch Cleaners

421

(2)

11.4.2 Post-CMP Cleaners

423

(2)

Acknowledgments

425

(1)

References

425

(4)

12 Germanium Surface Conditioning and Passivation

429

(44)

Sonja Sioncke

Yves J. Chabal

Martin M. Frank

12.1 Introduction

429

(2)

12.1.1 Germanium Use in Integrated Circuit Transistors

429

(1)

12.1.2 Gate Stack Interface Preparation and Passivation

430

(1)

12.1.3 Need for Passivation

430

(1)

12.2 Germanium Cleaning

431

(11)

12.2.1 Wet Chemical Compatibility and Etching Rates: A Historical Perspective

431

(2)

12.2.2 Wet Chemical Compatibility and Etching Rates: Recent Results

433

(1)

12.2.3 Metal Deposition on Germanium

434

(3)

12.2.4 Metal Removal from Germanium

437

(2)

12.2.5 Particle Deposition on Germanium

439

(2)

12.2.6 Particle Removal from Germanium

441

(1)

12.3 Surface Passivation and Gate Stack Interface Preparation

442

(31)

12.3.1 Thermodynamic Stability of Native Oxides

442

(1)

12.3.2 Oxidation

443

(4)

12.3.2.1 Gate Stacks on Oxidized Germanium

447

(1)

12.3.3 Nitridation and Oxynitridation

448

(4)

12.3.3.1 Gate Stacks on Nitrided or Oxynitrided Germanium

452

(1)

12.3.4 Hydrogenation

453

(1)

12.3.4.1 Hydrogenation in Ultra High Vacuum

453

(1)

12.3.4.2 Wet Chemical Treatment of Flat Single Crystal Germanium Surfaces

454

(6)

12.3.4.3 Electrochemistry on Flat Single Crystal Germanium Surfaces

460

(1)

12.3.4.4 Hydrofluoric Acid-treated Germanium Gate Stacks

460

(2)

12.3.5 Chlorine Passivation

462

(1)

12.3.5.1 Gate Stacks on HCl-treated Germanium

463

(1)

12.3.6 Sulfur Passivation

464

(3)

12.3.7 Silicon Passivation

467

(1)

References

468

(5)

13 Wafer Reclaim

473

(28)

Michael B. Korzenski

Ping Jiang

13.1 Introduction to Wafer Reclaim

473

(1)

13.2 Introduction to Silicon Manufacturing for Semiconductor Applications

474

(4)

13.3 Energy Requirements for Silicon Wafer Manufacturing

478

(1)

13.4 Test Wafer Usage and Wafer Reclaim

479

(3)

13.4.1 Silicon Material Flow in a Wafer Fab

479

(1)

13.4.2 Economics of Reclaiming Wafers

480

(2)

13.5 Requirements for Wafer Reclaim and Recycle

482

(2)

13.5.1 Reclaim Wafer Metrics

482

(1)

13.5.2 Techniques for Measuring Wafer Reclaim Specs

483

(1)

13.6 Wafer Reclaim Options

484

(4)

13.6.1 External Reclaim

485

(2)

13.6.2 Internal Wafer Reclaim Programs

487

(1)

13.7 Types of Wafer Reclaim Processes

488

(10)

13.7.1 Conventional Reclaim Processes

488

(1)

13.7.2 Non-metal Reclaim Processes

488

(4)

13.7.3 Metal Reclaim Processes

492

(2)

13.7.4 Metal Contamination

494

(4)

13.8 Formulated Reclaim Solutions

498

(3)

Acknowledgements

498

(1)

References

499

(2)

14 Direct Wafer Bonding Surface Conditioning

501

(44)

Hubert Moriceau

Yannick C. Le Tiec

Frank Fournel

Ludovic F. L. Ecarnot

Sebastien L. E. Kerdiles

Daniel Delprat

Christophe Maleville

14.1 Introduction and Overview of Bonding

501

(6)

14.1.1 Wafer Bonding for Semiconductor Applications

503

(1)

14.1.1.1 Silicon and Silica Direct Bonding

503

(1)

14.1.1.2 Silicon-on-insulator Structures

504

(1)

14.1.1.3 3D Integration Wafer Level Packaging

504

(1)

14.1.1.4 Diverse Material Stacking

505

(1)

14.1.1.5 Patterned Silicon-on-insulator Wafers

506

(1)

14.1.1.6 Germanium-on-insulator Wafers

506

(1)

14.1.2 Wafer Bonding Surface Conditioning

507

(1)

14.2 Planarization and Smoothing Prior to Bonding

507

(4)

14.2.1 Chemical Mechanical Planarization

507

(2)

14.2.2 Surface Smoothing

509

(2)

14.3 Wet Cleaning and Surface Conditioning Processing

511

(8)

14.3.1 Process Flow

512

(1)

14.3.2 Sulfuric Acid-Hydrogen Peroxide Mixture

513

(1)

14.3.3 Deionized Water/Ozone Cleaning

513

(1)

14.3.4 Standard Clean-1 Surface Conditioning

514

(1)

14.3.5 Standard Clean-2 Cleaning

515

(1)

14.3.6 Wafer Brush Scrubbing

515

(1)

14.3.7 Wafer Drying

516

(1)

14.3.7.1 Equipment

516

(1)

14.3.7.2 Analysis

517

(2)

14.4 Dry Surface Conditioning Processing

519

(10)

14.4.1 Process Flow

519

(1)

14.4.2 Plasma Activation

520

(1)

14.4.2.1 Background of Plasma Processing

520

(1)

14.2.2.2 Plasma Activation Mechanism

521

(3)

14.2.2.3 Plasma Subsurface Impact

524

(2)

14.4.3 Ultraviolet-Ozone Cleaning

526

(1)

14.4.3.1 Carbon Contamination

526

(1)

14.4.3.2 Ultraviolet-Ozone Cleaning

527

(1)

14.4.3.3 Oxidation by Ultraviolet-Ozone Processing

528

(1)

14.4.3.4 Surface Hydrophilicity

528

(1)

14.4.3.5 Ultraviolet-Ozone Defect Densities

529

(1)

14.5 Thermal Treatments and Annealing

529

(5)

14.5.1 Pre-bonding Annealing

530

(2)

14.5.2 Post-bond Annealing

532

(1)

14.5.2.1 Degassing Species Limitation

532

(1)

14.5.2.2 Effect of Interfacial Oxide Thickness on Bonding Defect Densities

533

(1)

14.6 Conductive Bonding

534

(11)

References

537

(8)

Part 3 New Directions

15 Novel Analytical Methods for Cleaning Evaluation

545

(20)

Chris M. Sparks

Alain C. Diebold

15.1 Introduction

545

(1)

15.2 Novel Analytical Methods

546

(1)

15.3 Recent Advances in Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy Analysis

547

(6)

15.3.1 Alternative X-ray Sources for TXRF

547

(2)

15.3.2 Surface Coverage of the Wafer

549

(2)

15.3.3 Edge Contamination Monitoring of the Wafer

551

(1)

15.3.4 Front and Back Surface Monitoring of the Wafer

552

(1)

15.3.5 Contamination Analysis on New Materials

553

(1)

15.4 Advances in Vapor Phase Analysis

553

(2)

15.5 Trace Metal Contamination on the Edge and Bevel of a Wafer

555

(1)

15.6 Kelvin Probe Technologies

556

(2)

15.7 Novel Applications of Electron Spectroscopy Techniques

558

(3)

15.8 Novel X-ray Spectroscopy Techniques

561

(1)

15.9 Electrochemical Sensors

561

(1)

15.10 Summary

561

(4)

Acknowledgments

561

(1)

References

561

(4)

16 Stripping and Cleaning for Advanced Photolithography Applications

565

(20)

John A. Marsella

Dana L. Durham

Leslie D. Molnar

16.1 Introduction to Advance Stripping Applications

565

(1)

16.2 Historical Background

566

(3)

16.2.1 Solvent-Based Strippers

566

(2)

16.2.2 Hydroxyiamine Photoresist Residue Removers

568

(1)

16.2.3 Fluoride-containing Strippers

568

(1)

16.3 Recent Trends for Photoresist Stripping and Post-etch Residue Removal

569

(3)

16.3.1 New Materials and Compatibility Issues

569

(1)

16.3.2 Germanium

569

(1)

16.3.3 Phase-change Memory Material

569

(1)

16.3.4 Porous Low-k Materials

570

(1)

16.3.5 High-k Materials

570

(1)

16.3.6 High Dose Ion Implanted Photoresist

571

(1)

16.4 Single Wafer Tools

572

(4)

16.4.1 Back End of the Line Processing

573

(1)

16.4.2 Front End of the Line Processing

574

(1)

16.4.3 Photoresist Rework

575

(1)

16.5 Wetting in Small Dimensions and Cleaning Challenges

576

(3)

16.6 Environmental Health and Safety

579

(2)

16.6.1 Challenges to the Semiconductor Industry

579

(1)

16.6.2 Solvents

580

(1)

16.7 The Future of Advanced Photoresist Stripping and Cleaning

581

(4)

Acknowledgements

581

(1)

References

581

(4)

Index

585

Karen A. Reinhardt is Principle Consultant at Cameo Consulting in San Jose, California. Currently, Karen works with start-up cleaning companies to develop their technology for acquisition. Prior to forming a consulting company, Karen was employed at Novellus Systems, AMD, and Cypress Semiconductor. She has published more than 30 technical publications, has been awarded seven patents, and is co-editor of Handbook of Silicon Wafer Cleaning Technology.

Richard F. Reidy (Ph.D., Penn State) is interim Chair and associate professor of Material Science and Engineering at the University of North Texas. He has conducted research in interconnect processing and characterization with over 60 technical publications and three patents. He is a member of the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors.

Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9781118071748_pe.html

Märksõnad:

Semiconductors - Surfaces - Cleaning

E-raamat: Handbook of Cleaning in Semiconductor Manufacturing - Fundamental and Applications: Fundamentals and Applications [Wiley Online]

Konto & seaded

Otsing

Otsingu andmebaas

Filtreeri tulemusi

Teemad Kirjastuste teemad

Vali ostukorv