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Chapter 1 Plant and Cell Architecture |
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1 | (50) |
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Plant Life Processes: Unifying Principles |
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2 | (1) |
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Plant Classification and Life Cycles |
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2 | (3) |
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Plant life cycles alternate between diploid and haploid generations |
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3 | (2) |
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Overview of Plant Structure |
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5 | (5) |
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Plant cells are surrounded by rigid cell walls |
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5 | (3) |
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Plasmodesmata allow the free movement of molecules between cells |
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8 | (1) |
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New cells originate in dividing tissues called meristems |
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8 | (2) |
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10 | (3) |
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Biological membranes are phospholipid bilayers that contain proteins |
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10 | (3) |
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13 | (10) |
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The nucleus contains the majority of the genetic material |
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13 | (4) |
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Gene expression involves both transcription and translation |
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17 | (1) |
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The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of internal membranes |
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17 | (2) |
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Secretion of proteins from cells begins with the rough ER |
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19 | (1) |
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Glycoproteins and polysaccharides destined for secretion are processed in the Golgi apparatus |
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20 | (2) |
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The plasma membrane has specialized regions involved in membrane recycling |
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22 | (1) |
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Vacuoles have diverse functions in plant cells |
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23 | (1) |
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Independently Dividing or Fusing Organelles Derived from the Endomembrane System |
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23 | (2) |
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Oil bodies are lipid-storing organelles |
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23 | (1) |
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Microbodies play specialized metabolic roles in leaves and seeds |
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24 | (1) |
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Independently Dividing, Semiautonomous Organelles |
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25 | (4) |
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Proplastids mature into specialized plastids in different plant tissues |
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27 | (2) |
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Chloroplast and mitochondrial division are independent of nuclear division |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (6) |
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The plant cytoskeleton consists of microtubules and microfilaments |
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29 | (2) |
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Actin, tubulin, and their polymers are in constant flux in the living cell |
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31 | (2) |
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Cortical microtubules move around the cell by treadmilling |
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33 | (1) |
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Cytoskeletal motor proteins mediate cytoplasmic streaming and directed organelle movement |
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33 | (2) |
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35 | (4) |
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Each phase of the cell cycle has a specific set of biochemical and cellular activities |
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35 | (1) |
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The cell cycle is regulated by cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases |
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36 | (1) |
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Mitosis and cytokinesis involve both microtubules and the endomembrane system |
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37 | (2) |
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39 | (12) |
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Dermal tissues cover the surfaces of plants |
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39 | (1) |
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Ground tissues form the bodies of plants |
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40 | (4) |
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Vascular tissues form transport networks between different parts of the plant |
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44 | (7) |
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Chapter 2 Genome Structure and Gene Expression |
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51 | (30) |
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Nuclear Genome Organization |
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51 | (10) |
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The nuclear genome is packaged into chromatin |
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52 | (1) |
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Centromeres, telomeres, and nucleolar organizer regions contain repetitive sequences |
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52 | (1) |
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Transposons are mobile sequences within the genome |
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53 | (1) |
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Chromosome organization is not random in the interphase nucleus |
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54 | (1) |
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Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes and allows for the recombination of alleles |
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54 | (2) |
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Polyploids contain multiple copies of the entire genome |
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56 | (2) |
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Phenotypic and physiological responses to polyploidy are unpredictable |
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58 | (2) |
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The role of polyploidy in evolution is still unclear |
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60 | (1) |
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Plant Cytoplasmic Genomes: Mitochondria and Plastids |
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61 | (1) |
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The endosymbiotic theory describes the origin of cytoplasmic genomes |
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61 | (1) |
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Organellar genomes vary in size |
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61 | (1) |
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Organellar genetics do not obey Mendelian principles |
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61 | (1) |
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Transcriptional Regulation of Nuclear Gene Expression |
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62 | (5) |
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RNA polymerase II binds to the promoter region of most protein-coding genes |
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62 | (2) |
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Conserved nucleotide sequences signal transcriptional termination and polyadenylation |
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64 | (1) |
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Epigenetic modifications help determine gene activity |
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65 | (2) |
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Posttranscriptional Regulation of Nuclear Gene Expression |
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67 | (5) |
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All RNA molecules are subject to decay |
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67 | (1) |
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Noncoding RNAs regulate mRNA activity via the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway |
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67 | (4) |
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Posttranslational regulation determines the life span of proteins |
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71 | (1) |
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Tools for Studying Gene Function |
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72 | (4) |
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Mutant analysis can help elucidate gene function |
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72 | (1) |
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Molecular techniques can measure the activity of genes |
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73 | (1) |
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Gene fusions can introduce reporter genes |
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74 | (2) |
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Genetic Modification of Crop Plants |
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76 | (5) |
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Transgenes can confer resistance to herbicides or plant pests |
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77 | (1) |
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Genetically modified organisms are controversial |
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77 | (4) |
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UNIT I Transport and Translocation of Water and Solutes |
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81 | (88) |
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Chapter 3 Water and Plant Cells |
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83 | (16) |
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83 | (1) |
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The Structure and Properties of Water |
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84 | (3) |
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Water is a polar molecule that forms hydrogen bonds |
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84 | (1) |
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Water is an excellent solvent |
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85 | (1) |
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Water has distinctive thermal properties relative to its size |
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85 | (1) |
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Water molecules are highly cohesive |
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85 | (1) |
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Water has a high tensile strength |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (2) |
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Diffusion is the net movement of molecules by random thermal agitation |
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87 | (1) |
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Diffusion is most effective over short distances |
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88 | (1) |
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Osmosis describes the net movement of water across a selectively permeable barrier |
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88 | (1) |
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89 | (2) |
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The chemical potential of water represents the free-energy status of water |
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89 | (1) |
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Three major factors contribute to cell water potential |
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90 | (1) |
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Water potentials can be measured |
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90 | (1) |
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Water Potential of Plant Cells |
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91 | (2) |
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Water enters the cell along a water potential gradient |
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91 | (1) |
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Water can also leave the cell in response to a water potential gradient |
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92 | (1) |
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Water potential and its components vary with growth conditions and location within the plant |
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93 | (1) |
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Cell Wall and Membrane Properties |
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93 | (3) |
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Small changes in plant cell volume cause large changes in turgor pressure |
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93 | (1) |
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The rate at which cells gain or lose water is influenced by cell membrane hydraulic conductivity |
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94 | (1) |
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Aquaporins facilitate the movement of water across cell membranes |
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95 | (1) |
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96 | (3) |
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Physiological processes are affected by plant water status |
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96 | (1) |
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Solute accumulation helps cells maintain turgor and volume |
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96 | (3) |
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Chapter 4 Water Balance of Plants |
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99 | (20) |
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99 | (2) |
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A negative hydrostatic pressure in soil water lowers soil water potential |
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100 | (1) |
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Water moves through the soil by bulk flow |
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101 | (1) |
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Water Absorption by Roots |
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101 | (3) |
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Water moves in the root via the apoplast, symplast, and transmembrane pathways |
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102 | (1) |
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Solute accumulation in the xylem can generate "root pressure" |
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103 | (1) |
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Water Transport through the Xylem |
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104 | (6) |
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The xylem consists of two types of transport cells |
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104 | (1) |
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Water moves through the xylem by pressure-driven bulk flow |
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105 | (1) |
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Water movement through the xylem requires a smaller pressure gradient than movement through living cells |
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106 | (1) |
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What pressure difference is needed to lift water 100 meters to a treetop? |
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107 | (1) |
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The cohesion-tension theory explains water transport in the xylem |
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107 | (1) |
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Xylem transport of water in trees faces physical challenges |
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108 | (2) |
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Plants minimize the consequences of xylem cavitation |
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110 | (1) |
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Water Movement from the Leaf to the Atmosphere |
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110 | (6) |
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Leaves have a large hydraulic resistance |
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111 | (1) |
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The driving force for transpiration is the difference in water vapor concentration |
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111 | (1) |
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Water loss is also regulated by the pathway resistances |
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112 | (1) |
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Stomatal control couples leaf transpiration to leaf photosynthesis |
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112 | (1) |
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The cell walls of guard cells have specialized features |
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113 | (2) |
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An increase in guard cell turgor pressure opens the stomata |
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115 | (1) |
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The transpiration ratio measures the relationship between water loss and carbon gain |
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116 | (1) |
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Overview: The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum |
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116 | (3) |
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Chapter 5 Mineral Nutrition |
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119 | (24) |
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Essential Nutrients, Deficiencies, and Plant Disorders |
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120 | (9) |
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Special techniques are used in nutritional studies |
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122 | (1) |
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Nutrient solutions can sustain rapid plant growth |
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122 | (3) |
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Mineral deficiencies disrupt plant metabolism and function |
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125 | (4) |
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Analysis of plant tissues reveals mineral deficiencies |
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129 | (1) |
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Treating Nutritional Deficiencies |
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129 | (2) |
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Crop yields can be improved by the addition of fertilizers |
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130 | (1) |
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Some mineral nutrients can be absorbed by leaves |
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131 | (1) |
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Soil, Roots, and MicrOBEs |
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131 | (12) |
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Negatively charged soil particles affect the adsorption of mineral nutrients |
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131 | (1) |
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Soil pH affects nutrient availability soil micrOBEs, and root growth |
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132 | (1) |
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Excess mineral ions in the soil limit plant growth |
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133 | (1) |
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Some plants develop extensive root systems |
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133 | (1) |
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Root systems differ in form but are based on common structures |
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134 | (1) |
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Different areas of the root absorb different mineral ions |
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135 | (2) |
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Nutrient availability influences root growth |
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137 | (1) |
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Mycorrhizal symbioses facilitate nutrient uptake by roots |
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137 | (3) |
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Nutrients move between mycorrhizal fungi and root cells |
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140 | (3) |
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Chapter 6 Solute Transport |
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143 | (26) |
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Passive and Active Transport |
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144 | (1) |
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Transport of Ions across Membrane Barriers |
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145 | (4) |
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Different diffusion rates for cations and anions produce diffusion potentials |
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146 | (1) |
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How does membrane potential relate to ion distribution? |
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146 | (1) |
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The Nernst equation distinguishes between active and passive transport |
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147 | (1) |
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Proton transport is a major determinant of the membrane potential |
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148 | (1) |
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Membrane Transport Processes |
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149 | (6) |
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Channels enhance diffusion across membranes |
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150 | (1) |
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Carriers bind and transport specific substances |
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151 | (1) |
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Primary active transport requires energy |
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151 | (3) |
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Kinetic analyses can elucidate transport mechanisms |
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154 | (1) |
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Membrane Transport Proteins |
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155 | (8) |
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The genes for many transporters have been identified |
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157 | (1) |
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Transporters exist for diverse nitrogen-containing compounds |
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157 | (1) |
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Cation transporters are diverse |
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158 | (2) |
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Anion transporters have been identified |
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160 | (1) |
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Transporters for metal and metalloid ions transport essential micronutrients |
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160 | (1) |
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Aquaporins have diverse functions |
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160 | (1) |
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Plasma membrane H+-ATPases are highly regulated P-type ATPases |
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161 | (1) |
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The tonoplast H+-ATPase drives solute accumulation in vacuoles |
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162 | (1) |
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H+-pyrophosphatases also pump protons at the tonoplast |
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163 | (1) |
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163 | (6) |
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Solutes move through both apoplast and symplast |
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164 | (1) |
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Ions cross both symplast and apoplast |
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164 | (1) |
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Xylem parenchyma cells participate in xylem loading |
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164 | (5) |
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UNIT II Biochemistry and Metabolism |
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169 | (208) |
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Chapter 7 Photosynthesis: The Light Reactions |
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171 | (32) |
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Photosynthesis in Higher Plants |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (3) |
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Light has characteristics of both a particle and a wave |
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172 | (1) |
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When molecules absorb or emit light, they change their electronic state |
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173 | (2) |
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Photosynthetic pigments absorb the light that powers photosynthesis |
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175 | (1) |
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Key Experiments in Understanding Photosynthesis |
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175 | (5) |
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Action spectra relate light absorption to photosynthetic activity |
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176 | (1) |
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Photosynthesis takes place in complexes containing light-harvesting antennas and photochemical reaction centers |
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176 | (2) |
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The chemical reaction of photosynthesis is driven by light |
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178 | (1) |
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Light drives the reduction of NADP+ and the formation of ATP |
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178 | (1) |
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Oxygen-evolving organisms have two photosystems that operate in series |
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179 | (1) |
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Organization of the Photosynthetic Apparatus |
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180 | (3) |
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The chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis |
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180 | (1) |
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Thylakoids contain integral membrane proteins |
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181 | (1) |
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Photosystems I and II are spatially separated in the thylakoid membrane |
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181 | (1) |
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Anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria have a single reaction center |
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182 | (1) |
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Organization of Light-Absorbing Antenna Systems |
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183 | (2) |
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Antenna systems contain chlorophyll and are membrane-associated |
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183 | (1) |
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The antenna funnels energy to the reaction center |
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183 | (1) |
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Many antenna pigment-protein complexes have a common structural motif |
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183 | (2) |
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Mechanisms of Electron Transport |
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185 | (8) |
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Electrons from chlorophyll travel through the carriers organized in the Z scheme |
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185 | (1) |
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Energy is captured when an excited chlorophyll reduces an electron acceptor molecule |
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186 | (1) |
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The reaction center chlorophylls of the two photosystems absorb at different wavelengths |
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187 | (1) |
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The PSII reaction center is a multi-subunit pigment-protein complex |
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188 | (1) |
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Water is oxidized to oxygen by PSII |
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188 | (1) |
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Pheophytin and two quinones accept electrons from PSII |
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189 | (2) |
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Electron flow through the cytochrome b6ƒ complex also transports protons |
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191 | (1) |
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Plastoquinone and plastocyanin carry electrons between photosystems II and I |
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192 | (1) |
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The PSI reaction center reduces NADP |
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192 | (1) |
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Cyclic electron flow generates ATP but no NADPH |
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193 | (1) |
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Some herbicides block photosynthetic electron flow |
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193 | (1) |
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Proton Transport and ATP Synthesis in the Chloroplast |
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193 | (2) |
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Repair and Regulation of the Photosynthetic Machinery |
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195 | (3) |
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Carotenoids serve as photoprotective agents |
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196 | (1) |
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Some xanthophylls also participate in energy dissipation |
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197 | (1) |
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The PSII reaction center is easily damaged |
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197 | (1) |
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PSI is protected from active oxygen species |
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198 | (1) |
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Thylakoid stacking permits energy partitioning between the photosystems |
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198 | (1) |
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Genetics, Assembly, and Evolution of Photosynthetic Systems |
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198 | (5) |
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Chloroplast genes exhibit non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance |
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198 | (1) |
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Most chloroplast proteins are imported from the cytoplasm |
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199 | (1) |
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The biosynthesis and breakdown of chlorophyll are complex pathways |
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199 | (1) |
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Complex photosynthetic organisms have evolved from simpler forms |
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199 | (4) |
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Chapter 8 Photosynthesis: The Carbon Reactions |
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203 | (42) |
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204 | (7) |
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The Calvin--Benson cycle has three phases: carboxylation, reduction, and regeneration |
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204 | (2) |
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The fixation of CO2 via carboxylation of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate and the reduction of the product 3-phosphoglycerate yield triose phosphates |
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206 | (1) |
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The regeneration of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate ensures the continuous assimilation of CO2 |
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207 | (1) |
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An induction period precedes the steady state of photosynthetic CO2 assimilation |
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208 | (1) |
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Many mechanisms regulate the Calvin-Benson cycle |
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209 | (1) |
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Rubisco-activase regulates the catalytic activity of rubisco |
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209 | (1) |
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Light regulates the Calvin--Benson cycle via the ferredoxin--thioredoxin system |
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210 | (1) |
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Light-dependent ion movements modulate enzymes of the Calvin--Benson cycle |
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211 | (1) |
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Light controls the assembly of chloroplast enzymes into supramolecular complexes |
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211 | (1) |
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The C2 Oxidative Photosynthetic Carbon Cycle |
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211 | (9) |
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The oxygenation of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate sets in motion the C2 oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle |
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213 | (4) |
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Photorespiration is linked to the photosynthetic electron transport system |
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217 | (1) |
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Enzymes of the plant C2 oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle derive from different ancestors |
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217 | (1) |
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Cyanobacteria use a proteobacterial pathway for bringing carbon atoms of 2-phosphoglycolate back to the Calvin-Benson cycle |
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217 | (1) |
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The C2 oxidative photosynthetic carbon cycle interacts with many metabolic pathways |
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218 | (1) |
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Production of biomass may be enhanced by engineering photorespiration |
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219 | (1) |
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Inorganic Carbon--Concentrating Mechanisms |
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220 | (1) |
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Inorganic Carbon--Concentrating Mechanisms: The C4 Carbon Cycle |
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220 | (8) |
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Malate and aspartate are the primary carboxylation products of the C4 cycle |
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221 | (1) |
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The C4 cycle assimilates CO2 by the concerted action of two different types of cells |
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222 | (2) |
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The C4 cycle uses different mechanisms for decarboxylation of four-carbon acids transported to bundle sheath cells |
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224 | (1) |
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Bundle sheath cells and mesophyll cells exhibit anatomical and biochemical differences |
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224 | (1) |
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The C4 cycle also concentrates CO2 in single cells |
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225 | (1) |
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Light regulates the activity of key C4 enzymes |
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225 | (1) |
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Photosynthetic assimilation of CO2 in C4 plants demands more transport processes than in C3 plants |
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225 | (3) |
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In hot, dry climates, the C4 cycle reduces photorespiration |
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228 | (1) |
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Inorganic Carbon-Concentrating Mechanisms: Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) |
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228 | (2) |
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Different mechanisms regulate C4 PEPCase and CAM PEPCase |
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230 | (1) |
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CAM is a versatile mechanism sensitive to environmental stimuli |
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230 | (1) |
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Accumulation and Partitioning of Photosynthates---Starch and Sucrose |
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230 | (1) |
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Formation and Mobilization of Chloroplast Starch |
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231 | (7) |
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Chloroplast stroma accumulates starch as insoluble granules during the day |
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233 | (3) |
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Starch degradation at night requires the phosphorylation of amylopectin |
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236 | (1) |
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The export of maltose prevails in the nocturnal breakdown of transitory starch |
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237 | (1) |
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The synthesis and degradation of the starch granule are regulated by multiple mechanisms |
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237 | (1) |
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Sucrose Biosynthesis and Signaling |
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238 | (7) |
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Triose phosphates from the Calvin-Benson cycle build up the cytosolic pool of three important hexose phosphates in the light |
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238 | (1) |
|
Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate regulates the hexose phosphate pool in the light |
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239 | (1) |
|
Sucrose is continuously synthesized in the cytosol |
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239 | (6) |
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Chapter 9 Photosynthesis: Physiological and Ecological Considerations |
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245 | (24) |
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Photosynthesis Is Influenced by Leaf Properties |
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246 | (4) |
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Leaf anatomy and canopy structure maximize light absorption |
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247 | (2) |
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Leaf angle and leaf movement can control light absorption |
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249 | (1) |
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Leaves acclimate to sun and shade environments |
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249 | (1) |
|
Effects of Light on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf |
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250 | (5) |
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Light-response curves reveal photosynthetic properties |
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250 | (2) |
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Leaves must dissipate excess light energy |
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252 | (2) |
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Absorption of too much light can lead to photoinhibition |
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254 | (1) |
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Effects of Temperature on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf |
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255 | (3) |
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Leaves must dissipate vast quantities of heat |
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255 | (1) |
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There is an optimal temperature for photosynthesis |
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|
256 | (1) |
|
Photosynthesis is sensitive to both high and low temperatures |
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256 | (1) |
|
Photosynthetic efficiency is temperature-sensitive |
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257 | (1) |
|
Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Photosynthesis in the Intact Leaf |
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258 | (6) |
|
Atmospheric CO2 concentration keeps rising |
|
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258 | (1) |
|
CO2 diffusion to the chloroplast is essential to photosynthesis |
|
|
258 | (2) |
|
CO2 imposes limitations on photosynthesis |
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260 | (2) |
|
How will photosynthesis and respiration change in the future under elevated CO2 conditions? |
|
|
262 | (2) |
|
Stable Isotopes Record Photosynthetic Properties |
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|
264 | (5) |
|
How do we measure the stable carbon isotopes of plants? |
|
|
264 | (1) |
|
Why are there carbon isotope ratio variations in plants? |
|
|
265 | (4) |
|
Chapter 10 Stomatal Biology |
|
|
269 | (16) |
|
Light-dependent Stomatal Opening |
|
|
270 | (6) |
|
Guard cells respond to blue light |
|
|
270 | (1) |
|
Blue light activates a proton pump at the guard cell plasma membrane |
|
|
271 | (2) |
|
Blue-light responses have characteristic kinetics and lag times |
|
|
273 | (1) |
|
Blue light regulates the osmotic balance of guard cells |
|
|
273 | (2) |
|
Sucrose is an osmotically active solute in guard cells |
|
|
275 | (1) |
|
Mediation of Blue-light Photoreception in Guard Cells by Zeaxanthin |
|
|
276 | (2) |
|
Reversal of Blue Light--Stimulated Opening by Green Light |
|
|
278 | (2) |
|
A carotenoid--protein complex senses light intensity |
|
|
280 | (1) |
|
The Resolving Power of Photophysiology |
|
|
280 | (5) |
|
Chapter 11 Translocation in the Phloem |
|
|
285 | (32) |
|
Pathways of Translocation |
|
|
286 | (5) |
|
Sugar is translocated in phloem sieve elements |
|
|
286 | (1) |
|
Mature sieve elements are living cells specialized for translocation |
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
Large pores in cell walls are the prominent feature of sieve elements |
|
|
288 | (1) |
|
Damaged sieve elements are sealed off |
|
|
289 | (1) |
|
Companion cells aid the highly specialized sieve elements |
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
Patterns of Translocation: Source to Sink |
|
|
291 | (1) |
|
Materials Translocated in the Phloem |
|
|
292 | (3) |
|
Phloem sap can be collected and analyzed |
|
|
292 | (1) |
|
Sugars are translocated in a nonreducing form |
|
|
293 | (1) |
|
Other solutes are translocated in the phloem |
|
|
293 | (2) |
|
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
The Pressure-Flow Model, a Passive Mechanism for Phloem Transport |
|
|
295 | (5) |
|
An osmotically generated pressure gradient drives translocation in the pressure-flow model |
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
Some predictions of pressure flow have been confirmed, while others require further experimentation |
|
|
296 | (1) |
|
There is no bidirectional transport in single sieve elements, and solutes and water move at the same velocity |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
The energy requirement for transport through the phloem pathway is small in herbaceous plants |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
Sieve plate pores appear to be open channels |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
Pressure gradients in the sieve elements may be modest; pressures in herbaceous plants and trees appear to be similar |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
Alternative models for translocation by mass flow have been suggested |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
Does translocation in gymnosperms involve a different mechanism? |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
|
|
300 | (5) |
|
Phloem loading can occur via the apoplast or symplast |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
Abundant data support the existence of apoplastic loading in some species |
|
|
301 | (1) |
|
Sucrose uptake in the apoplastic pathway requires metabolic energy |
|
|
301 | (1) |
|
Phloem loading in the apoplastic pathway involves a sucrose--H+ symporter |
|
|
302 | (1) |
|
Phloem loading is symplastic in some species |
|
|
302 | (1) |
|
The polymer-trapping model explains symplastic loading in plants with intermediary-type companion cells |
|
|
303 | (1) |
|
Phloem loading is passive in several tree species |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
The type of phloem loading is correlated with several significant characteristics |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
Phloem Unloading and Sink-to-Source Transition |
|
|
305 | (4) |
|
Phloem unloading and short-distance transport can occur via symplastic or apoplastic pathways |
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
Transport into sink tissues requires metabolic energy |
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
The transition of a leaf from sink to source is gradual |
|
|
307 | (2) |
|
Photosynthate Distribution: Allocation and Partitioning |
|
|
309 | (2) |
|
Allocation includes storage, utilization, and transport |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
Various sinks partition transport sugars |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
Source leaves regulate allocation |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
Sink tissues compete for available translocated photosynthate |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
Sink strength depends on sink size and activity |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
The source adjusts over the long term to changes in the source-to-sink ratio |
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
Transport of Signaling Molecules |
|
|
311 | (6) |
|
Turgor pressure and chemical signals coordinate source and sink activities |
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
Proteins and RNAs function as signal molecules in the phloem to regulate growth and development |
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
Plasmodesmata function in phloem signaling |
|
|
313 | (4) |
|
Chapter 12 Respiration and Lipid Metabolism |
|
|
317 | (36) |
|
Overview of Plant Respiration |
|
|
317 | (4) |
|
|
|
321 | (3) |
|
Glycolysis metabolizes carbohydrates from several sources |
|
|
321 | (1) |
|
The energy-conserving phase of glycolysis extracts usable energy |
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
Plants have alternative glycolytic reactions |
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
In the absence of oxygen, fermentation regenerates the NAD+ needed for glycolysis |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
Plant glycolysis is controlled by its products |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
The Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Pathway |
|
|
324 | (2) |
|
The oxidative pentose phosphate pathway produces NADPH and biosynthetic intermediates |
|
|
326 | (1) |
|
The oxidative pentose phosphate pathway is redox-regulated |
|
|
326 | (1) |
|
|
|
326 | (3) |
|
Mitochondria are semiautonomous organelles |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion and is oxidized via the citric acid cycle |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
The citric acid cycle of plants has unique features |
|
|
329 | (1) |
|
Mitochondrial Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis |
|
|
329 | (11) |
|
The electron transport chain catalyzes a flow of electrons from NADH to O2 |
|
|
330 | (2) |
|
The electron transport chain has supplementary branches |
|
|
332 | (1) |
|
ATP synthesis in the mitochondrion is coupled to electron transport |
|
|
333 | (1) |
|
Transporters exchange substrates and products |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
Aerobic respiration yields about 60 molecules of ATP per molecule of sucrose |
|
|
334 | (2) |
|
Several subunits of respiratory complexes are encoded by the mitochondrial genome |
|
|
336 | (1) |
|
Plants have several mechanisms that lower the ATP yield |
|
|
336 | (2) |
|
Short-term control of mitochondrial respiration occurs at different levels |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
Respiration is tightly coupled to other pathways |
|
|
339 | (1) |
|
Respiration in Intact Plants and Tissues |
|
|
340 | (3) |
|
Plants respire roughly half of the daily photosynthetic yield |
|
|
340 | (1) |
|
Respiration operates during photosynthesis |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
Different tissues and organs respire at different rates |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
Environmental factors alter respiration rates |
|
|
342 | (1) |
|
|
|
343 | (10) |
|
Fats and oils store large amounts of energy |
|
|
343 | (1) |
|
Triacylglycerols are stored in oil bodies |
|
|
343 | (1) |
|
Polar glycerolipids are the main structural lipids in membranes |
|
|
344 | (1) |
|
Fatty acid biosynthesis consists of cycles of two-carbon addition |
|
|
344 | (2) |
|
Glycerolipids are synthesized in the plastids and the ER |
|
|
346 | (2) |
|
Lipid composition influences membrane function |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
Membrane lipids are precursors of important signaling compounds |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
Storage lipids are converted into carbohydrates in germinating seeds |
|
|
348 | (5) |
|
Chapter 13 Assimilation of Inorganic Nutrients |
|
|
353 | (24) |
|
Nitrogen in the Environment |
|
|
354 | (2) |
|
Nitrogen passes through several forms in a biogeochemical cycle |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
Unassimilated ammonium or nitrate may be dangerous |
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
|
|
356 | (2) |
|
Many factors regulate nitrate reductase |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
Nitrite reductase converts nitrite to ammonium |
|
|
357 | (1) |
|
Both roots and shoots assimilate nitrate |
|
|
357 | (1) |
|
|
|
358 | (2) |
|
Converting ammonium to amino acids requires two enzymes |
|
|
358 | (2) |
|
Ammonium can be assimilated via an alternative pathway |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
Transamination reactions transfer nitrogen |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
Asparagine and glutamine link carbon and nitrogen metabolism |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
Biological Nitrogen Fixation |
|
|
360 | (7) |
|
Free-living and symbiotic bacteria fix nitrogen |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
Nitrogen fixation requires microanaerobic or anaerobic conditions |
|
|
362 | (1) |
|
Symbiotic nitrogen fixation occurs in specialized structures |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
Establishing symbiosis requires an exchange of signals |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
Nod factors produced by bacteria act as signals for symbiosis |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
Nodule formation involves phytohormones |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
The nitrogenase enzyme complex fixes N2 |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
Amides and ureides are the transported forms of nitrogen |
|
|
367 | (1) |
|
|
|
367 | (2) |
|
Sulfate is the form of sulfur transported into plants |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
Sulfate assimilation requires the reduction of sulfate to cysteine |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
Sulfate assimilation occurs mostly in leaves |
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
Methionine is synthesized from cysteine |
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
|
|
370 | (2) |
|
Cations form noncovalent bonds with carbon compounds |
|
|
370 | (1) |
|
Roots modify the rhizosphere to acquire iron |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
Iron cations form complexes with carbon and phosphate |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
The Energetics of Nutrient Assimilation |
|
|
372 | (5) |
|
UNIT III Growth and Development |
|
|
377 | |
|
Chapter 14 Cell Walls: Structure, Formation, and Expansion |
|
|
379 | (28) |
|
Overview of Plant Cell Wall Functions and Structures |
|
|
380 | (12) |
|
Plants vary in structure and function |
|
|
380 | (2) |
|
Components differ for primary and secondary cell walls |
|
|
382 | (2) |
|
Cellulose microfibrils have an ordered structure and are synthesized at the plasma membrane |
|
|
384 | (3) |
|
Matrix polymers are synthesized in the Golgi apparatus and secreted via vesicles |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
Pectins are hydrophilic gel-forming components of the primary cell wall |
|
|
388 | (2) |
|
Hemicelluloses are matrix polysaccharides that bind to cellulose |
|
|
390 | (2) |
|
Primary Cell Wall Structure and Function |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
The primary cell wall is composed of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of pectins and hemicelluloses |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
New primary cell walls are assembled during cytokinesis and continue to be assembled during growth |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
Mechanisms of Cell Expansion |
|
|
393 | (4) |
|
Microfibril orientation influences growth directionality of cells with diffuse growth |
|
|
394 | (1) |
|
Cortical microtubules influence the orientation of newly deposited microfibrils |
|
|
395 | (2) |
|
The Extent and Rate of Cell Growth |
|
|
397 | (3) |
|
Stress relaxation of the cell wall drives water uptake and cell expansion |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
Acid-induced growth and wall stress relaxation are mediated by expansins |
|
|
397 | (2) |
|
Cell wall models are hypotheses about how molecular components fit together to make a functional wall |
|
|
399 | (1) |
|
Many structural changes accompany the cessation of wall expansion |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Secondary Cell Wall Structure and Function |
|
|
400 | (7) |
|
Secondary cell walls are rich in cellulose and hemi-cellulose and often have a hierarchical organization |
|
|
400 | (2) |
|
Lignification transforms the SCW into a hydrophobic structure resistant to deconstruction |
|
|
402 | (5) |
|
Chapter 15 Signals and Signal Transduction |
|
|
407 | (40) |
|
Temporal and Spatial Aspects of Signaling |
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
Signal Perception and Amplification |
|
|
409 | (5) |
|
Receptors are located throughout the cell and are conserved across kingdoms |
|
|
409 | (2) |
|
Signals must be amplified intracellularly to regulate their target molecules |
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
The MAP kinase signal amplification cascade is present in all eukaryotes |
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
Ca2+ is the most ubiquitous second messenger in plants and other eukaryotes |
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
Changes in the cytosolic or cell wall pH can serve as second messengers for hormonal and stress responses |
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
Reactive oxygen species act as second messengers mediating both environmental and developmental signals |
|
|
413 | (1) |
|
Lipid signaling molecules act as second messengers that regulate a variety of cellular processes |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
Hormones and Plant Development |
|
|
414 | (7) |
|
Auxin was discovered in early studies of coleoptile bending during phototropism |
|
|
417 | (1) |
|
Gibberellins promote stem growth and were discovered in relation to the "foolish seedling disease" of rice |
|
|
417 | (1) |
|
Cytokinins were discovered as cell division-promoting factors in tissue culture experiments |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that promotes fruit ripening and other developmental processes |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Abscisic acid regulates seed maturation and stomatal closure in response to water stress |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Brassinosteroids regulate photomorphogenesis, germination, and other developmental processes |
|
|
420 | (1) |
|
Strigolactones suppress branching and promote rhizosphere interactions |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
Phytohormone Metabolism and Homeostasis |
|
|
421 | (8) |
|
Indole-3-pyruvate is the primary intermediate in auxin biosynthesis |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
Gibberellins are synthesized by oxidation of the diterpene ent-kaurene |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
Cytokinins are adenine derivatives with isoprene side chains |
|
|
423 | (3) |
|
Ethylene is synthesized from methionine via the intermediate ACC |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
Abscisic acid is synthesized from a carotenoid intermediate |
|
|
426 | (2) |
|
Brassinosteroids are derived from the sterol campesterol |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
Strigolactones are synthesized from (3-carotene |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Signal Transmission and Cell-Cell Communication |
|
|
429 | (2) |
|
Hormonal Signaling Pathways |
|
|
431 | (16) |
|
The cytokinin and ethylene signal transduction pathways are derived from the bacterial two-component regulatory system |
|
|
431 | (2) |
|
Receptor-like kinases mediate brassinosteroid and certain auxin signaling pathways |
|
|
433 | (3) |
|
The core ABA signaling components include phosphatases and kinases |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
Plant hormone signaling pathways generally employ negative regulation |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
Several plant hormone receptors encode components of the ubiquitination machinery and mediate signaling via protein degradation |
|
|
437 | (2) |
|
Plants have evolved mechanisms for switching off or attenuating signaling responses |
|
|
439 | (2) |
|
The cellular response output to a signal is often tissue-specific |
|
|
441 | (1) |
|
Cross-regulation allows signal transduction pathways to be integrated |
|
|
441 | (6) |
|
Chapter 16 Signals from Sunlight |
|
|
447 | (30) |
|
|
|
448 | (4) |
|
Photoresponses are driven by light quality or spectral properties of the energy absorbed |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
Plants responses to light can be distinguished by the amount of light required |
|
|
450 | (2) |
|
|
|
452 | (5) |
|
Phytochrome is the primary photoreceptor for red and far-red light |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome can interconvert between Pr and Pfr forms |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
Pfr is the physiologically active form of phytochrome |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
The phytochrome chromophore and protein both undergo conformational changes in response to red light |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Pfr is partitioned between the cytosol and the nucleus |
|
|
454 | (3) |
|
|
|
457 | (2) |
|
Phytochrome responses vary in lag time and escape time |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome responses fall into three main categories based on the amount of light required |
|
|
457 | (2) |
|
Phytochrome A mediates responses to continuous far-red light |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome B mediates responses to continuous red or white light |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Roles for phytochromes C, D, and E are emerging |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome Signaling Pathways |
|
|
459 | (3) |
|
Phytochrome regulates membrane potentials and ion fluxes |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome regulates gene expression |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome interacting factors (PIFs) act early in signaling |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome signaling involves protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome-induced photomorphogenesis involves protein degradation |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Blue-Light Responses and Photoreceptors |
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
Blue-light responses have characteristic kinetics and lag times |
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
|
|
463 | (3) |
|
The activated FAD chromophore of cryptochrome causes a conformational change in the protein |
|
|
463 | (2) |
|
cry1 and cry2 have different developmental effects |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
Nuclear cryptochromes inhibit COP1-induced protein degradation |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
Cryptochrome can also bind to transcriptional regulators directly |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
The Coaction of Cryptochrome, Phytochrome, and Phototropins |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
Stem elongation is inhibited by both red and blue photoreceptors |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome interacts with cryptochrome to regulate flowering |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
The circadian clock is regulated by multiple aspects of light |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
|
|
467 | (6) |
|
Blue light induces changes in FMN absorption maxima associated with conformation changes |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
The LOV2 domain is primarily responsible for kinase activation in response to blue light |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
Blue light induces a conformational change that "uncages" the kinase domain of phototropin and leads to autophosphorylation |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
Phototropism requires changes in auxin mobilization |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
Phototropins regulate chloroplast movements via F-actin filament assembly |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
Stomatal opening is regulated by blue light, which activates the plasma membrane H+-ATPase |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
The main signal transduction events of phototropin-mediated stomatal opening have been identified |
|
|
472 | (1) |
|
Responses to Ultraviolet Radiation |
|
|
473 | (4) |
|
|
|
477 | (36) |
|
Overview of Plant Growth and Development |
|
|
478 | (2) |
|
Sporophytic development can be divided into three major stages |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
Embryogenesis: The Origins of Polarity |
|
|
480 | (15) |
|
Embryogenesis differs between eudicots and monocots, but also features common fundamental processes |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
Apical--basal polarity is established early in embryogenesis |
|
|
481 | (2) |
|
Position-dependent mechanisms guide embryogenesis |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
Intercellular signaling processes play key roles in guiding position-dependent development |
|
|
484 | (1) |
|
Embryo development features regulate communication between cells |
|
|
484 | (1) |
|
The analysis of mutants identifies genes for signaling processes that are essential for embryo organization |
|
|
485 | (2) |
|
Auxin functions as a mobile chemical signal during embryogenesis |
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
Plant polarity is maintained by polar auxin streams |
|
|
487 | (2) |
|
Auxin transport is regulated by multiple mechanisms |
|
|
489 | (2) |
|
The GNOM protein establishes a polar distribution of PIN auxin efflux proteins |
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
MONOPTEROS encodes a transcription factor that is activated by auxin |
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
Radial patterning guides formation of tissue layers |
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
The origin of epidermis: a boundary and interface at the edge of the radial axis |
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
Procambial precusors for the vascular stele lie at the center of the radial axis |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
The differentiation of cortical and endodermal cells involves the intercellular movement of a transcription factor |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
Meristematic Tissues: Foundations for Indeterminate Growth |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
The root and shoot apical meristems use similar strategies to enable indeterminate growth |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
|
|
496 | (4) |
|
The root tip has four developmental zones |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
The origin of different root tissues can be traced to specific initial cells |
|
|
497 | (2) |
|
Cell ablation experiments implicate directional signaling processes in determination of cell identity |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
Auxin contributes to the formation and maintenance of the RAM |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
Responses to auxin are mediated by several distinct families of transcription factors |
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
Cytokinin is required for normal root development |
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
The Shoot Apical Meristem |
|
|
500 | (8) |
|
The shoot apical meristem has distinct zones and layers |
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
Shoot tissues are derived from several discrete sets of apical initials |
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
Factors involved in auxin movement and responses influence SAM formation |
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
Embryonic SAM formation requires the coordinated expression of transcription factors |
|
|
503 | (2) |
|
A combination of positive and negative interactions determines apical meristem size |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
KNOX class homeodomain genes help maintain the proliferative ability of the SAM through regulation of cytokinin and GA levels |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
Localized zones of auxin accumulation promote leaf initiation |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
|
508 | (5) |
|
The maintenance of undetermined initials in various meristem types depends on similar mechanisms |
|
|
508 | (5) |
|
Chapter 18 Seed Dormancy, Germination, and Seedling Establishment |
|
|
513 | (40) |
|
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
Seed anatomy varies widely among different plant groups |
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
|
|
515 | (4) |
|
Dormancy can be imposed on the embryo by the surrounding tissues |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
Embryo dormancy may be caused by physiological or morphological factors |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
Non-dormant seeds can exhibit vivipary and precocious germination |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
The ABA: GA ratio is the primary determinant of seed dormancy |
|
|
517 | (2) |
|
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
Light is an important signal that breaks dormancy in small seeds |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
Some seeds require either chilling or after-ripening to break dormancy |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
Seed dormancy can by broken by various chemical compounds |
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
|
|
520 | (2) |
|
Germination can be divided into three phases corresponding to the phases of water uptake |
|
|
520 | (2) |
|
Mobilization of Stored Reserves |
|
|
522 | (4) |
|
The cereal aleurone layer is a specialized digestive tissue surrounding the starchy endosperm |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
Gibberellins enhance the transcription of a-amylase mRNA |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
The gibberellin receptor, GID1, promotes the degradation of negative regulators of the gibberellin response |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
GA-MYB is a positive regulator of a-amylase transcription |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
DELLA repressor proteins are rapidly degraded |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
ABA inhibits gibberellin-induced enzyme production |
|
|
524 | (2) |
|
Seedling Growth and Establishment |
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
Auxin promotes growth in stems and coleoptiles, while inhibiting growth in roots |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
The outer tissues of eudicot stems are the targets of auxin action |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
The minimum lag time for auxin-induced elongation is 10 minutes |
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
Auxin-induced proton extrusion induces cell wall creep and cell elongation |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
Tropisms: Growth in Response to Directional Stimuli |
|
|
528 | (7) |
|
Gravitropism involves the lateral redistribution of auxin |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
Polar auxin transport requires energy and is gravity independent |
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
According to the starch--statolith hypothesis, specialized amyloplasts serve as gravity sensors in root caps |
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
Auxin movements in the root are regulated by specific transporters |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
The gravitropic stimulus perturbs the symmetric movement of auxin from the root tip |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Gravity perception in eudicot stems and stemlike organs occurs in the starch sheath |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Gravity sensing may involve pH and calcium ions (Ca2+) as second messengers |
|
|
533 | (2) |
|
|
|
535 | (2) |
|
Phototropism is mediated by the lateral redistribution of auxin |
|
|
535 | (1) |
|
Phototropism occurs in a series of posttranslational events |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
|
|
537 | (3) |
|
Gibberellins and brassinosteroids both suppress photomorphogenesis in the dark |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
Hook opening is regulated by phytochrome and auxin |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
Ethylene induces lateral cell expansion |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
|
|
540 | (2) |
|
Phytochrome enables plants to adapt to changes in light quality |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Decreasing the R: FR ratio causes elongation in sun plants |
|
|
540 | (2) |
|
Reducing shade avoidance responses can improve crop yields |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Vascular Tissue Differentiation |
|
|
542 | (3) |
|
Auxin and cytokinin are required for normal vascular development |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
Zinnia suspension-cultured cells can be induced to undergo xylogenesis |
|
|
544 | (1) |
|
Xylogenesis involves chemical signaling between neighboring cells |
|
|
544 | (1) |
|
Root Growth and Differentiation |
|
|
545 | (8) |
|
Root epidermal development follows three basic patterns |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Auxin and other hormones regulate root hair development |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Lateral root formation and emergence depend on endogenous and exogenous signals |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
Regions of lateral root emergence correspond with regions of auxin maxima |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
Lateral roots and shoots have gravitropic setpoint angles |
|
|
549 | (4) |
|
Chapter 19 Vegetative Growth and Organogenesis |
|
|
553 | (38) |
|
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
The Establishment of Leaf Polarity |
|
|
554 | (7) |
|
Hormonal signals play key roles in regulating leaf primordia emergence |
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
A signal from the SAM initiates adaxial--abaxial polarity |
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
ARP genes promote adaxial identity and repress the KNOX1 gene |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
Adaxial leaf development requires HD-ZIP III transcription factors |
|
|
556 | (2) |
|
The expression of HD-ZIP III genes is antagonized by miR166 in abaxial regions of the leaf |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Antagonism between KANADI and HD-ZIP III is a key determinant of adaxial--abaxial leaf polarity |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Interactions between adaxial and abaxial tissues are required for blade outgrowth |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Blade outgrowth is auxin dependent and regulated by the YABBY and WOX genes |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Leaf proximal--distal polarity also depends on specific gene expression |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
In compound leaves, de-repression of the KNOX1 gene promotes leaflet formation |
|
|
559 | (2) |
|
Differentiation of Epidermal Cell Types |
|
|
561 | (4) |
|
Guard cell fate is ultimately determined by a specialized epidermal lineage |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
Two groups of bHLH transcription factors govern stomatal cell fate transitions |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
Peptide signals regulate stomatal patterning by interacting with cell surface receptors |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
Genetic screens have led to the identification of positive and negative regulators of trichome initiation |
|
|
563 | (2) |
|
GLABRA2 acts downstream of the GL1--GL3--TTG1 complex to promote trichome formation |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
Jasmonic acid regulates Arabidopsis leaf trichome development |
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
Venation Patterns in Leaves |
|
|
565 | (14) |
|
The primary leaf vein is initiated discontinuously from the preexisting vascular system |
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
Auxin canalization initiates development of the leaf trace |
|
|
566 | (2) |
|
Basipetal auxin transport from the L1 layer of the leaf primordium initiates development of the leaf trace procambium |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
The existing vasculature guides the growth of the leaf trace |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
Higher-order leaf veins differentiate in a predictable hierarchical order |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
Auxin canalization regulates higher-order vein formation |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
Localized auxin biosynthesis is critical for higher-order venation patterns |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
Shoot Branching and Architecture |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
Axillary meristem initiation involves many of the same genes as leaf initiation and lamina outgrowth |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
Auxin, cytokinins, and strigolactones regulate axillary bud outgrowth |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
Auxin from the shoot tip maintains apical dominance |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Strigolactones act locally to repress axillary bud growth |
|
|
574 | (2) |
|
Cytokinins antagonize the effects of strigolactones |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
The initial signal for axillary bud growth may be an increase in sucrose availability to the bud |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
Integration of environmental and hormonal branching signals is required for plant fitness |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
Axillary bud dormancy in woody plants is affected by season, position, and age factors |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
|
|
579 | (4) |
|
Plants can modify their root system architecture to optimize water and nutrient uptake |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
Monocots and eudicots differ in their root system architecture |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
Root system architecture changes in response to phosphorous deficiencies |
|
|
580 | (2) |
|
Root system architecture responses to phosphorus deficiency involve both local and systemic regulatory networks |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
Mycorrhizal networks augment root system architecture in all major terrestrial ecosystems |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
|
|
583 | (8) |
|
The vascular cambium and cork cambium are the secondary meristems where secondary growth originates |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
Secondary growth evolved early in the evolution of land plants |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Secondary growth from the vascular cambium gives rise to secondary xylem and phloem |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Phytohormones have important roles in regulating vascular cambium activity and differentiation of secondary xylem and phloem |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Genes involved in stem cell maintenance, proliferation, and differentiation regulate secondary growth |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
Environmental factors influence vascular cambium activity and wood properties |
|
|
587 | (4) |
|
Chapter 20 The Control of Flowering and Floral Development |
|
|
591 | (34) |
|
Floral Evocation: Integrating Environmental Cues |
|
|
592 | (1) |
|
The Shoot Apex and Phase Changes |
|
|
592 | (2) |
|
Plant development has three phases |
|
|
592 | (1) |
|
Juvenile tissues are produced first and are located at the base of the shoot |
|
|
592 | (1) |
|
Phase changes can be influenced by nutrients, gibberellins, and other signals |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
Circadian Rhythms: The Clock Within |
|
|
594 | (3) |
|
Orcadian rhythms exhibit characteristic features |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
Phase shifting adjusts circadian rhythms to different day--night cycles |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
Phytochromes and cryptochromes entrain the clock |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
Photoperiodism: Monitoring Day Length |
|
|
597 | (8) |
|
Plants can be classified according to their photoperiodic responses |
|
|
597 | (2) |
|
The leaf is the site of perception of the photoperiodicsignal |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
Plants monitor day length by measuring the length of the night |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
Night breaks can cancel the effect of the dark period |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
Photoperiodic timekeeping during the night depends on a circadian clock |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
The coincidence model is based on oscillating light sensitivity |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
The coincidence of CONSTANS expression and light promotes flowering in LDPs |
|
|
601 | (2) |
|
SDPs use a coincidence mechanism to inhibit flowering in long days |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
Phytochrome is the primary photoreceptor in photoperiodism |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
A blue-light photoreceptor regulates flowering in some LDPs |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
Vernalization: Promoting Flowering with Cold |
|
|
605 | (3) |
|
Vernalization results in competence to flower at the shoot apical meristem |
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
Vernalization can involve epigenetic changes in gene expression |
|
|
606 | (1) |
|
A range of vernalization pathways may have evolved |
|
|
607 | (1) |
|
Long-Distance Signaling Involved in Flowering |
|
|
608 | (2) |
|
Grafting studies provided the first evidence for a transmissible floral stimulus |
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
Florigen is translocated in the phloem |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
The Identification of Florigen |
|
|
610 | (2) |
|
The Arabidopsis protein FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) is florigen |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
Gibberellins and ethylene can induce flowering |
|
|
610 | (2) |
|
The transition to flowering involves multiple factors and pathways |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
Floral Meristems and Floral Organ Development |
|
|
612 | (13) |
|
The shoot apical meristem in Arabidopsis changes with development |
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
The four different types of floral organs are initiated as separate whorls |
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
Two major categories of genes regulate floral development |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
Floral meristem identity genes regulate meristem function |
|
|
614 | (2) |
|
Homeotic mutations led to the identification of floral organ identity genes |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
The ABC model partially explains the determination of floral organ identity |
|
|
616 | (2) |
|
Arabidopsis Class E genes are required for the activities of the A, B, and C genes |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
According to the Quartet Model, floral organ identity is regulated by tetrameric complexes of the ABCE proteins |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
Class D genes are required for ovule formation |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Floral asymmetry in flowers is regulated by gene expression |
|
|
620 | (5) |
|
Chapter 21 Gametophytes, Pollination, Seeds, and Fruits |
|
|
625 | (40) |
|
Development of the Male and Female Gametophyte Generations |
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
Formation of Male Gametophytes in the Stamen |
|
|
626 | (4) |
|
Pollen grain formation occurs in two successive stages |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
The multilayered pollen cell wall is surprisingly complex |
|
|
628 | (2) |
|
Female Gametophyte Development in the Ovule |
|
|
630 | (2) |
|
The Arabidopsis gynoecium is an important model system for studying ovule development |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
The vast majority of angiosperms exhibit Polygonum-type embryo sac development |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
Functional megaspores undergo a series of free nuclear mitotic divisions followed by cellularization |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
Embryo sac development involves hormonal signaling between sporophytic and gametophytic generations |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Pollination and Fertilization in Flowering Plants |
|
|
632 | (7) |
|
Delivery of sperm cells to the female gametophyte by the pollen tube occurs in six phases |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
Adhesion and hydration of a pollen grain on a compatible flower depend on recognition between pollen and stigma surfaces |
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
Ca2+-triggered polarization of the pollen grain precedes tube formation |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
Pollen tubes grow by tip growth |
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
Receptor-like kinases are thought to regulate the ROP1 GTPase switch, a master regulator of tip growth |
|
|
635 | (2) |
|
Pollen tube tip growth in the pistil is directed by both physical and chemical cues |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
Style tissue conditions the pollen tube to respond to attractants produced by the synergids of the embryo sac |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
Double fertilization occurs in three distinct stages |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
Selfing versus Outcrossing |
|
|
639 | (4) |
|
Hermaphroditic and monoecious species have evolved floral features to ensure outcrossing |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) occurs in the wild and is of great utility in agriculture |
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
Self-incompatibility (SI) is the primary mechanism that enforces outcrossing in angiosperms |
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
The Brassicaceae sporophytic SI system requires two S-locus genes |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
Gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI) is mediated by cytotoxic S-RNases and F-box proteins |
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
Apomixis: Asexual Reproduction by Seed |
|
|
643 | (1) |
|
|
|
643 | (7) |
|
Cellularization of coenocytic endosperm in Arabidopsis progresses from the micropylar to the chalazal region |
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
Cellularization of the coenocytic endosperm of cereals progresses centripetally |
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
Endosperm development and embryogenesis can occur autonomously |
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
Many of the genes that control endosperm development are maternally expressed genes |
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
The FIS proteins are members of a Polycomb repressive complex (PRC2) that represses endosperm development |
|
|
647 | (2) |
|
Cells of the starchy endosperm and aleurone layer follow divergent developmental pathways |
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
Two genes, DEK1 and CR4, have been implicated in aleurone layer differentiation |
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
|
|
650 | (2) |
|
Seed coat development appears to be regulated by the endosperm |
|
|
650 | (2) |
|
Seed Maturation and Desiccation Tolerance |
|
|
652 | (3) |
|
Seed filling and desiccation tolerance phases overlap in most species |
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
The acquisition of desiccation tolerance involves many metabolic pathways |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
During the acquisition of desiccation tolerance, the cells of the embryo acquire a glassy state |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
LEA proteins and nonreducing sugars have been implicated in seed desiccation tolerance |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
Specific LEA proteins have been implicated in desiccation tolerance in Medicago truncatula |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
Abscisic acid plays a key role in seed maturation |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
Coat-imposed dormancy is correlated with long-term seed-viability |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
Fruit Development and Ripening |
|
|
655 | (10) |
|
Arabidopsis and tomato are model systems for the study of fruit development |
|
|
655 | (2) |
|
Fleshy fruits undergo ripening |
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
Ripening involves changes in the color of fruit |
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
Fruit softening involves the coordinated action of many cell wall-degrading enzymes |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
Taste and flavor reflect changes in acids, sugars, and aroma compounds |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
The causal link between ethylene and ripening was demonstrated in transgenic and mutant tomatoes |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
Climacteric and non-climacteric fruit differ in their ethylene responses |
|
|
658 | (2) |
|
The ripening process is transcriptionally regulated |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
Angiosperms share a range of common molecular mechanisms controlling fruit development and ripening |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
Fruit ripening is under epigenetic control |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
A mechanistic understanding of the ripening process has commercial applications |
|
|
661 | (4) |
|
Chapter 22 Plant Senescence and Cell Death |
|
|
665 | (28) |
|
Programmed Cell Death and Autolysis |
|
|
666 | (5) |
|
PCD during normal development differs from that of the hypersensitive response |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
The autophagy pathway captures and degrades cellular constituents within lytic compartments |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
A subset of the autophagy-related genes controls the formation of the autophagosome |
|
|
669 | (2) |
|
The autophagy pathway plays a dual role in plant development |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
The Leaf Senescence Syndrome |
|
|
671 | (7) |
|
The developmental age of a leaf may differ from its chronological age |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Leaf senescence may be sequential, seasonal, or stress-induced |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Developmental leaf senescence consists of three distinct phases |
|
|
673 | (2) |
|
The earliest cellular changes during leaf senescence occur in the chloroplast |
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
The autolysis of chloroplast proteins occurs in multiple compartments |
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
The STAY-GREEN (SGR) protein is required for both LHCP II protein recycling and chlorophyll catabolism |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
Leaf senescence is preceded by a massive reprogramming of gene expression |
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
Leaf Senescence: The Regulatory Network |
|
|
678 | (6) |
|
The NAC and WRKY gene families are the most abundant transcription factors regulating leaf senescence |
|
|
678 | (2) |
|
ROS serve as internal signaling agents in leaf senescence |
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
Sugars accumulate during leaf senescence and may serve as a signal |
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
Plant hormones interact in the regulation of leaf senescence |
|
|
681 | (3) |
|
|
|
684 | (2) |
|
The timing of leaf abscission is regulated by the interaction of ethylene and auxin |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
|
686 | (7) |
|
Angiosperm life cycles may be annual, biennial, or perennial |
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
Whole plant senescence differs from aging in animals |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
The determinacy of shoot apical meristems is developmentally regulated |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
Nutrient or hormonal redistribution may trigger senescence in monocarpic plants |
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
The rate of carbon accumulation in trees increases continuously with tree size |
|
|
689 | (4) |
|
Chapter 23 Biotic Interactions |
|
|
693 | (38) |
|
Beneficial Interactions between Plants and Microorganisms |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
Nod factors are recognized by the Nod factor receptor (NFR) in legumes |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
Arbuscular mycorrhizal associations and nitrogen-fixing symbioses involve related signaling pathways |
|
|
695 | (2) |
|
Rhizobacteria can increase nutrient availability, stimulate root branching, and protect against pathogens |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
Harmful Interactions between Plants, Pathogens, and Herbivores |
|
|
697 | (8) |
|
Mechanical barriers provide a first line of defense against insect pests and pathogens |
|
|
698 | (2) |
|
Plant secondary metabolites can deter insect herbivores |
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
Plants store constitutive toxic compounds in specialized structures |
|
|
701 | (2) |
|
Plants often store defensive chemicals as nontoxic water-soluble sugar conjugates in the vacuole |
|
|
703 | (2) |
|
Constitutive levels of secondary compounds are higher in young developing leaves than in older tissues |
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
Inducible Defense Responses to Insect Herbivores |
|
|
705 | (10) |
|
Plants can recognize specific components of insect saliva |
|
|
706 | (1) |
|
Modified fatty acids secreted by grasshoppers act as elicitors of jasmonic acid accumulation and ethylene emission |
|
|
706 | (1) |
|
Phloem feeders activate defense signaling pathways similar to those activated by pathogen infections |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
Calcium signaling and activation of the MAP kinase pathway are early events associated with insect herbivory |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
Jasmonic acid activates defense responses against insect herbivores |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
Jasmonic acid acts through a conserved ubiquitin ligase signaling mechanism |
|
|
709 | (1) |
|
Hormonal interactions contribute to plant-insect herbivore interactions |
|
|
709 | (1) |
|
JA initiates the production of defense proteins that inhibit herbivore digestion |
|
|
710 | (1) |
|
Herbivore damage induces systemic defenses |
|
|
710 | (2) |
|
Glutamate receptor-like (GLR) genes are required for long-distance electrical signaling during herbivory |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Herbivore-induced volatiles can repel herbivores and attract natural enemies |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Herbivore-induced volatiles can serve as long-distance signals between plants |
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
Herbivore-induced volatiles can also act as systemic signals within a plant |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
Defense responses to herbivores and pathogens are regulated by circadian rhythms |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
Insects have evolved mechanisms to defeat plant defenses |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
Plant Defenses against Pathogens |
|
|
715 | (9) |
|
Microbial pathogens have evolved various strategies to invade host plants |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
Pathogens produce effector molecules that aid in the colonization of their plant host cells |
|
|
716 | (1) |
|
Pathogen infection can give rise to molecular "danger signals" that are perceived by cell surface pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) |
|
|
717 | (1) |
|
R genes provide resistance to individual pathogens by recognizing strain-specific effectors |
|
|
718 | (1) |
|
Exposure to elicitors induces a signal transduction cascade |
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
Effectors released by phloem-feeding insects also activate NBS--LRR receptors |
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
The hypersensitive response is a common defense against pathogens |
|
|
720 | (1) |
|
Phytoalexins with antimicrobial activity accumulate after pathogen attack |
|
|
721 | (1) |
|
A single encounter with a pathogen may increase resistance to future attacks |
|
|
721 | (2) |
|
The main components of the salicylic acid signaling pathway for SAR have been identified |
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
Interactions of plants with nonpathogenic bacteria can trigger systemic resistance through a process called induced systemic resistance (ISR) |
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
Plant Defenses against Other Organisms |
|
|
724 | (7) |
|
Some plant parasitic nematodes form specific associations through the formation of distinct feeding structures |
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
Plants compete with other plants by secreting allelopathic secondary metabolites into the soil |
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
Some plants are biotrophic pathogens of other plants |
|
|
726 | (5) |
|
Chapter 24 Abiotic Stress |
|
|
731 | |
|
|
|
732 | (1) |
|
Physiological adjustment to abiotic stress involves trade-offs between vegetative and reproductive development |
|
|
732 | (1) |
|
Acclimation and Adaptation |
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
Adaptation to stress involves genetic modification over many generations |
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
Acclimation allows plants to respond to environmental fluctuations |
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
Environmental Factors and Their Biological Impacts on Plants |
|
|
734 | (5) |
|
Water deficit decreases turgor pressure, increases ion toxicity, and inhibits photosynthesis |
|
|
735 | (1) |
|
Salinity stress has both osmotic and cytotoxic effects |
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
Light stress can occur when shade-adapted or shade-acclimated plants are subjected to full sunlight |
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
Temperature stress affects a broad spectrum of physiological processes |
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
Flooding results in anaerobic stress to the root |
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
During freezing stress, extracellular ice crystal formation causes cell dehydration |
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
Heavy metals can both mimic essential mineral nutrients and generate ROS |
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
Mineral nutrient deficiencies are a cause of stress |
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
Ozone and ultraviolet light generate ROS that cause lesions and induce PCD |
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
Combinations of abiotic stresses can induce unique signaling and metabolic pathways |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
Sequential exposure to different abiotic stresses sometimes confers cross-protection |
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
Stress-Sensing Mechanisms in Plants |
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
Early-acting stress sensors provide the initial signal for the stress response |
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
Signaling Pathways Activated in Response to Abiotic Stress |
|
|
740 | (7) |
|
The signaling intermediates of many stress-response pathways can interact |
|
|
740 | (3) |
|
Acclimation to stress involves transcriptional regulatory networks called regulons |
|
|
743 | (1) |
|
Chloroplast genes respond to high-intensity light by sending stress signals to the nucleus |
|
|
744 | (1) |
|
A self-propagating wave of ROS mediates systemic acquired acclimation |
|
|
745 | (1) |
|
Epigenetic mechanisms and small RNAs provide additional protection against stress |
|
|
745 | (1) |
|
Hormonal interactions regulate normal development and abiotic stress responses |
|
|
745 | (2) |
|
Developmental and Physiological Mechanisms That Protect Plants against Abiotic Stress |
|
|
747 | |
|
Plants adjust osmotically to drying soil by accumulating solutes |
|
|
748 | (1) |
|
Submerged organs develop aerenchyma tissue in response to hypoxia |
|
|
749 | (1) |
|
Antioxidants and ROS-scavenging pathways protect cells from oxidative stress |
|
|
750 | (1) |
|
Molecular chaperones and molecular shields protect proteins and membranes during abiotic stress |
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
Plants can alter their membrane lipids in response to temperature and other abiotic stresses |
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
Exclusion and internal tolerance mechanisms allow plants to cope with toxic ions |
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
Phytochelatins and other chelators contribute to internal tolerance of toxic metal ions |
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
Plants use cryoprotectant molecules and antifreeze proteins to prevent ice crystal formation |
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
ABA signaling during water stress causes the massive efflux of K+ and anions from guard cells |
|
|
755 | (2) |
|
Plants can alter their morphology in response to abiotic stress |
|
|
757 | (2) |
|
Metabolic shifts enable plants to cope with a variety of abiotic stresses |
|
|
759 | (1) |
|
The process of recovery from stress can be dangerous to the plant and requires a coordinated adjustment of plant metabolism and physiology |
|
|
759 | (1) |
|
Developing crops with enhanced tolerance to abiotic stress conditions is a major goal of agricultural research |
|
|
759 | |
| Glossary |
|
1 | (1) |
| Illustration Credits |
|
1 | (1) |
| Photo Credits |
|
1 | (1) |
| Subject Index |
|
1 | |
