Preface |
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xi | |
1 Introduction |
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1 | (6) |
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6 | (1) |
2 Categorization of Welding and Weld Problems |
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7 | (16) |
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7 | (6) |
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2.2 Microstructural Zones of Welds |
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13 | (6) |
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2.3 Origin of Problems in Welding and Welds |
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19 | (1) |
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2.4 How Problems Can Be Logically Categorized? |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (2) |
Part I: Manifestation of Problems with Welds and Weldments |
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23 | (112) |
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3 Problems with Joint Setup and Weld Joints |
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25 | (22) |
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25 | (1) |
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3.2 Weld Joint Types and Weld Configurations |
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26 | (5) |
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31 | (4) |
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3.4 Problems with Weld Profile |
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35 | (7) |
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3.5 Troubleshooting Guide |
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42 | (3) |
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45 | (1) |
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45 | (2) |
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4 Shape Distortion, Dimensional Shrinkage, and Geometric Instability |
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47 | (20) |
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4.1 Thermal Versus Mechanical Stresses in a Structure |
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47 | (1) |
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4.2 Residual Stresses Versus Distortion |
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48 | (1) |
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4.3 Origin and Effect of Volumetric Shrinkage |
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48 | (4) |
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4.4 Origin and Effect of Thermal Contraction |
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52 | (5) |
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4.5 Problems from Nonuniform Thermal Contraction and CTE Mismatches |
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57 | (3) |
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4.6 Problems from Distortion and from Residual Stresses |
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60 | (1) |
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4.7 Distortion Control and Residual Stress Reduction |
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60 | (5) |
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4.8 Troubleshooting Guide |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (22) |
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5.1 The Most Common Problem in Welds |
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67 | (3) |
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5.2 Types of Weld Porosity |
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70 | (3) |
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5.3 Gases in Molten Weld Metal |
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73 | (6) |
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5.4 The Many Possible Causes of Porosity in Welds |
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79 | (5) |
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5.5 Attempting to Minimize Porosity Formation in Fusion Welds |
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84 | (1) |
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5.6 Troubleshooting Porosity Problems in Welds |
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85 | (2) |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (2) |
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89 | (20) |
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6.1 The Most Dreaded Defect in Welds |
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89 | (1) |
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6.2 Classification of Cracking and Cracks in Welds and Welding |
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90 | (1) |
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6.3 Hot Cracking and Cracks |
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91 | (7) |
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6.4 Cold Cracking and Cracks |
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98 | (3) |
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6.5 Other Weld-Related Cracking and Cracks |
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101 | (1) |
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6.6 Crack-Prone Metals and Alloys |
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102 | (3) |
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6.7 Troubleshooting Cracking Problems in Welds |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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107 | (2) |
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7 Nonmetallic and Metallic Inclusions |
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109 | (8) |
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7.1 Solid Versus Gas Inclusions |
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109 | (1) |
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7.2 Nonmetallic Inclusions in Welds |
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110 | (4) |
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7.3 Metallic Inclusions in Welds |
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114 | (1) |
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7.4 Troubleshooting Problems with Inclusions in Welds |
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115 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (18) |
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8.1 Can You Judge a Book by Its Cover? Is Beauty Only Skin Deep? |
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117 | (1) |
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8.2 Weld Crown Bead Faults |
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118 | (3) |
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8.3 Weld Root Bead Faults |
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121 | (2) |
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123 | (1) |
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8.5 Reading Weld Ripple Marks |
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124 | (2) |
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126 | (2) |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (3) |
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8.9 Troubleshooting Weld Appearance Problems |
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132 | (1) |
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133 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
Part II Location of Problems in Welds |
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135 | (98) |
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9 Fusion Zone of Fusion Welds |
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137 | (20) |
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9.1 A Refresher on Microstructural Zones in and Around Welds |
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137 | (4) |
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9.2 Gas Porosity in the Fusion Zone of Welds |
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141 | (2) |
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9.3 Cracking in the Fusion Zone of Welds |
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143 | (8) |
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9.4 Inclusions in the Fusion Zone of Welds |
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151 | (1) |
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9.5 Macrosegregation in the Fusion Zone of Welds |
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152 | (1) |
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9.6 Troubleshooting Problems in the Fusion Zone of Welds |
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153 | (2) |
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155 | (1) |
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156 | (1) |
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10 Partially Melted Zone of Fusion Welds |
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157 | (12) |
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10.1 Origin and Location of the PMZ in Fusion Welds |
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157 | (4) |
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10.2 Conventional Hot Cracking in the PMZ |
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161 | (1) |
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10.3 Constitutional Liquation Cracking in the PMZ |
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161 | (3) |
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10.4 Cold Cracking in the PMZ |
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164 | (2) |
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10.5 Overcoming Cracking Problems in the PMZ |
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166 | (1) |
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10.6 Troubleshooting Problems in the PMZ |
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167 | (1) |
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167 | (1) |
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168 | (1) |
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11 Heat-Affected Zone of Fusion Welds |
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169 | (20) |
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11.1 Origin and Location of the HAZ for Fusion Welds |
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169 | (1) |
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11.2 Manifestation of Problems in the HAZ of Fusion Welds |
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170 | (1) |
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11.3 Precipitation-Hardening Alloy HAZ Problems |
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171 | (5) |
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11.4 Sensitization in the HAZ of Austenitic Stainless Steels |
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176 | (3) |
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11.5 Transformation-Hardening Steel HAZ Problems |
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179 | (4) |
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183 | (3) |
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11.7 Troubleshooting Problems in the HAZ of Fusion Welds |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (1) |
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188 | (1) |
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12 Unaffected Base Metal Cracking Associated with Welding |
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189 | (14) |
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12.1 Weld-Related Problems in the Unaffected Base Metal |
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189 | (1) |
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12.2 Lamellar Tearing in Thick Steel Weldments |
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189 | (3) |
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12.3 Corrosion Cracking Caused by Fusion Welding |
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192 | (3) |
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12.4 Fatigue Cracking Outside Fusion Welds |
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195 | (4) |
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12.5 Troubleshooting Weld-Related Problems in the Unaffected Base Metal |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (2) |
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13 Discontinuities in Multi-pass Welds |
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203 | (16) |
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13.1 Needs for Multi-pass Welding and Welds |
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203 | (2) |
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13.2 Various Functions of Multi-pass Welding and Welds |
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205 | (2) |
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13.3 Defects Found in Multi-pass Welds |
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207 | (3) |
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13.4 Composition Adjustment with Multi-pass Welding |
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210 | (3) |
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13.5 Property Alteration with Multi-pass Welding |
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213 | (3) |
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13.6 Troubleshooting Problems in Multi-pass Welding and Welds |
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216 | (1) |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (2) |
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14 Problems with Non-fusion Welding and Non-fusion Welds |
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219 | (14) |
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14.1 Non-fusion Welding Processes Versus Fusion Welding Processes |
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219 | (1) |
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14.2 Overview of Non-fusion Processes |
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220 | (3) |
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14.2.1 Pressure Welding Processes |
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222 | (1) |
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14.2.2 Friction Welding Processes |
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222 | (1) |
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14.2.3 Diffusion Welding Processes |
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222 | (1) |
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14.2.4 Solid-State Deposition Welding |
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223 | (1) |
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14.3 Problems with Non-fusion Welds and Non-fusion Welding Processes |
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223 | (6) |
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14.4 Inspection and Repair Challenges with Non-fusion Welds |
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229 | (1) |
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14.5 Troubleshooting Problems with Non-fusion Welds |
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230 | (1) |
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230 | (1) |
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231 | (2) |
Part III: Material-Specific Weld-Related Problems |
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233 | (88) |
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15 Embrittlement of Carbon and Low-and Medium-alloy Steels |
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235 | (12) |
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15.1 The Importance of Steel |
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235 | (3) |
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15.2 Four Causes of Embrittlement in Carbon and Low-and Medium-alloy Steels |
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238 | (1) |
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15.3 Hydrogen Embrittlement: A Misnomer in Steels |
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239 | (1) |
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15.4 Secondary Hardening in Steels |
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240 | (1) |
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15.5 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition in Steels |
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241 | (2) |
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15.6 Compromise of Fatigue and Impact Behavior by Residual Stresses in Steels |
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243 | (1) |
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15.7 Troubleshooting Problems from Embrittlement of Steels by Welding |
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244 | (1) |
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245 | (1) |
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245 | (2) |
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16 Sensitization or Weld Decay and Knife-line Attack in Stainless Steels |
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247 | (10) |
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16.1 A Primer on the Metallurgy of Stainless Steels |
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247 | (2) |
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16.2 Sensitization of Austenitic Stainless Steels by Welding |
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249 | (3) |
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16.3 Sensitization of Other Grades of Stainless Steel |
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252 | (1) |
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16.4 Knife-line Attack in Stabilized Austenitic Stainless Steels |
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252 | (2) |
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16.5 Troubleshooting Problems from Sensitization or Knife-line Attack |
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254 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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255 | (2) |
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17 Stress Relief Cracking of Precipitation-Hardening Alloys |
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257 | (16) |
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17.1 Different Names, Same Phenomenon |
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257 | (3) |
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17.2 Stress Relief Cracking in Ferritic Alloy Steels |
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260 | (5) |
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17.3 Stress Relaxation Cracking in Stainless Steels |
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265 | (2) |
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17.4 Strain-age Cracking in Ni-Based Superalloys |
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267 | (3) |
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17.5 Troubleshooting Problems from Stress Relief or Strain-age Cracking |
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270 | (1) |
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271 | (1) |
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271 | (2) |
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18 Loss of Properties in Cold-Worked Metals and Alloys |
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273 | (14) |
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18.1 Cold Work, Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth |
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273 | (5) |
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18.2 Cold-Worked Metals and Alloys in Engineering |
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278 | (3) |
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18.3 Avoiding or Recovering Properties Loss from Fusion Welding |
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281 | (3) |
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18.4 The Worked Zone in Pressure-Welded Metals and Alloys |
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284 | (1) |
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18.5 Troubleshooting Welding Problems in Cold-Worked Metals and Alloys |
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285 | (1) |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (1) |
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19 Embrittlement with High-chromium Contents |
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287 | (10) |
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19.1 Phase Formation and Structure |
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287 | (4) |
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19.2 Adverse Effects of σ-Phase |
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291 | (1) |
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291 | (2) |
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19.4 Guidelines for Avoiding or Resolving Problems from a-Phase |
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293 | (1) |
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19.5 Troubleshooting Problems with a-Phase Associated with Welding |
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294 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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295 | (2) |
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20 Weld Dilution and Chemical Inhomogeneity |
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297 | (12) |
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20.1 The Designer's Druthers |
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297 | (3) |
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20.2 Chemical Inhomogeneity in Welds |
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300 | (2) |
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302 | (2) |
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20.4 The Unmixed Zone in the Weld Metal |
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304 | (3) |
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20.5 Impurities in the Weld Metal |
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307 | (1) |
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20.6 Troubleshooting Problems from Weld Dilution and Chemical Inhomogeneity |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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21 Dissimilar Metal and Alloy Welding |
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309 | (12) |
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21.1 Joining Dissimilar Materials |
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309 | (2) |
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21.2 The Need for Welding Dissimilar Metals and Alloys |
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311 | (1) |
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21.3 Chemical Incompatibility |
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311 | (4) |
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21.4 Mechanical Incompatibility |
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315 | (1) |
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21.5 Thermal Incompatibility |
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315 | (3) |
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21.6 Troubleshooting Problems with Dissimilar Metal and Alloy Welding |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (1) |
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319 | (2) |
Closing Thoughts |
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321 | (2) |
Index |
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323 | |