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E-raamat: Reconstructing Quaternary Environments 3rd edition [Taylor & Francis e-raamat]

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  • Formaat: 568 pages, 13 Tables, black and white; 63 Line drawings, color; 152 Line drawings, black and white; 112 Halftones, color; 175 Illustrations, color; 152 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 24-Oct-2014
  • Kirjastus: Routledge
  • ISBN-13: 9781315797496
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Reconstructing Quaternary Environments 3rd editionSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: 568 pages, 13 Tables, black and white; 63 Line drawings, color; 152 Line drawings, black and white; 112 Halftones, color; 175 Illustrations, color; 152 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 24-Oct-2014
  • Kirjastus: Routledge
  • ISBN-13: 9781315797496
Teised raamatud teemal:
Taylor & Francis e-raamatudRohkem infot Taylor & Francis e-raamatute kohta
Raamatu kodulehekülg: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781315797496

This third edition of Reconstructing Quaternary Environments has been completely revised and updated to provide a new account of the history and scale of environmental changes during the Quaternary. The evidence is extremely diverse ranging from landforms and sediments to fossil assemblages and geochemical data, and includes new data from terrestrial, marine and ice-core records. Dating methods are described and evaluated, while the principles and practices of Quaternary stratigraphy are also discussed. The volume concludes with a new chapter which considers some of the key questions about the nature, causes and consequences of global climatic and environmental change over a range of temporal scales. This synthesis builds on the methods and approaches described earlier in the book to show how a number of exciting ideas that have emerged over the last two decades are providing new insights into the operation of the global earth-ocean-atmosphere system, and are now central to many areas of contemporary Quaternary research.

This comprehensive and dynamic textbook is richly illustrated throughout with full-colour figures and photographs. The book will be of interest to undergraduates, postgraduates and professionals in Earth Science, Environmental Science, Physical Geography, Geology, Botany, Zoology, Ecology, Archaeology and Anthropology

List of figures and tables xv
Preface to the third edition xxvii
Acknowledgements xxix
Cover image details xxx
1 The Quaternary record 1(18)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 Interpreting the Quaternary record
2(1)
1.3 The status of the Quaternary in the geological timescale
2(1)
1.4 The duration of the Quaternary
3(2)
1.5 The development of Quaternary studies
5(4)
1.5.1 Historical developments
5(2)
1.5.2 Recent developments
7(2)
1.6 The framework of the Quaternary
9(4)
1.7 The causes of climatic change
13(3)
1.8 The scope of this book
16(1)
Notes
17(2)
2 Geomorphological evidence 19(74)
2.1 Introduction
19(1)
2.2 Methods
19(7)
2.2.1 Field methods
19(3)
2.2.1.1 Field mapping
19(1)
2.2.1.2 Instrumental levelling
20(2)
2.2.2 Remote sensing
22(4)
2.2.2.1 Aerial photography
22(1)
2.2.2.2 Satellite imagery
22(1)
2.2.2.3 Radar
23(1)
2.2.2.4 Sonar and seismic sensing
24(1)
2.2.2.5 Digital elevation/terrain modelling
24(2)
2.3 Glacial landforms
26(27)
2.3.1 Extent of ice cover
27(3)
2.3.2 Geomorphological evidence and the extent of ice sheets and glaciers during the last cold stage
30(9)
2.3.2.1 Northern Europe
30(3)
2.3.2.2 Britain and Ireland
33(2)
2.3.2.3 North America
35(4)
2.3.3 Direction of ice movement
39(4)
2.3.3.1 Striations
40(1)
2.3.3.2 Friction cracks
40(1)
2.3.3.3 Ice-moulded (streamlined) bedrock
40(2)
2.3.3.4 Streamlined glacial deposits
42(1)
2.3.4 Reconstruction of former ice masses
43(7)
2.3.4.1 Ice sheet modelling
43(4)
2.3.4.2 Ice caps and glaciers
47(3)
2.3.5 Palaeoclimatic inferences using former glacier elevations
50(3)
2.3.5.1 Cirque floor altitude (CFA) and toe-to-headwall (THAR) methods
50(1)
2.3.5.2 ELA/FLA method
51(2)
2.4 Periglacial landforms
53(5)
2.4.1 Palaeoclimatic inferences based on periglacial evidence
55(3)
2.4.1.1 Rock glaciers
55(1)
2.4.1.2 Pingos and palsas
56(1)
2.4.1.3 Pronival ('protalus') ramparts
57(1)
2.5 Sea-level change
58(15)
2.5.1 Relative and 'absolute' sea-level changes
59(1)
2.5.2 Eustatic changes in sea level
59(8)
2.5.2.1 Pre-Quaternary eustatic changes
59(1)
2.5.2.2 Quaternary eustatic changes
60(7)
2.5.3 Tectonic influences
67(1)
2.5.4 Glacio- and hydro-isostasy
68(1)
2.5.5 Shoreline sequences in areas affected by glacio-isostasy
69(4)
2.5.6 Palaeoenvironmental significance of sea-level changes
73(1)
2.6 River terraces
73(9)
2.6.1 Origins of river terraces
75(3)
2.6.1.1 Eustatic changes in sea level
76(1)
2.6.1.2 Climatic change
76(1)
2.6.1.3 Glaciation
77(1)
2.6.1.4 Tectonic changes
77(1)
2.6.1.5 Human activity
77(1)
2.6.2 River terraces and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction
78(1)
2.6.3 The terraces of the River Thames
78(4)
2.7 Quaternary landforms in low latitudes
82(9)
2.7.1 Pluvial lakes
82(4)
2.7.2 Dunefields
86(3)
2.7.3 Fluvial landforms
89(1)
2.7.4 Weathering crusts
90(1)
2.8 Conclusions
91(1)
Notes
91(2)
3 Lithological evidence 93(88)
3.1 Introduction
93(1)
3.2 Field and laboratory methods
93(6)
3.2.1 Sediment sections
93(1)
3.2.2 Coring
94(2)
3.2.3 Laboratory methods
96(3)
3.2.3.1 Particle size measurements
96(1)
3.2.3.2 Particle shape
97(1)
3.2.3.3 Surface textures of quartz particles
97(1)
3.2.3.4 Organic carbon content
97(1)
3.2.3.5 Metallic elements
98(1)
3.2.3.6 Heavy minerals
98(1)
3.2.3.7 Clay mineralogy
98(1)
3.2.3.8 Mineral magnetic analysis
98(1)
3.2.3.9 Stable isotope analysis
98(1)
3.3 Glacial sediments
99(16)
3.3.1 Introduction
99(1)
3.3.2 The nature of glacial sediments
99(3)
3.3.2.1 Unstratified and stratified sediments
99(1)
3.3.2.2 Glacigenic facies
100(2)
3.3.3 The classification of tills
102(5)
3.3.3.1 Lodgement, melt-out and 'flow' tills
102(1)
3.3.3.2 Deformation tills
102(3)
3.3.3.3 Paraglacial deposits
105(2)
3.3.4 The influence of the thermal regime of glacier ice
107(2)
3.3.5 Analysis of glacigenic sequences
109(2)
3.3.5.1 Particle size and shape analysis
109(1)
3.3.5.2 Lithofacies interpretations
109(2)
3.3.6 Ice-directional indicators
111(4)
3.3.6.1 Erratics
111(2)
3.3.6.2 Till fabrics
113(2)
3.3.6.3 Properties of the till matrix
115(1)
3.4 Periglacial sediments
115(7)
3.4.1 Introduction
115(1)
3.4.2 Structures associated with permafrost
116(2)
3.4.3 Palaeoclimatic significance of periglacial structures
118(4)
3.5 Palaeosols
122(5)
3.5.1 Introduction
122(1)
3.5.2 The nature of palaeosols
122(2)
3.5.3 Analysis of palaeosols
124(1)
3.5.4 Palaeosols and Quaternary environments
125(2)
3.6 Wind-blown sediments
127(5)
3.6.1 Introduction
127(1)
3.6.2 Loess stratigraphy
127(3)
3.6.3 Mid-latitude sand belts (coversands)
130(1)
3.6.4 Low-latitude 'sand seas'
131(1)
3.6.5 Wind-blown sediments and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions
131(1)
3.7 Lake-level records from low-latitude regions
132(8)
3.7.1 Introduction
132(1)
3.7.2 Pluvial lake sediment sequences
133(2)
3.7.3 Lake-level changes and Quaternary palaeoclimates
135(5)
3.8 Cave sediments and carbonate deposits
140(11)
3.8.1 Introduction
140(1)
3.8.2 Detrital sediment in caves
141(2)
3.8.3 Speleothem
143(1)
3.8.4 Speleothem growth and environmental reconstruction
143(6)
3.8.4.1 Speleothem growth and climatic change
143(2)
3.8.4.2 Stable isotope ratios in cave speleothem
145(3)
3.8.4.3 Trace elements in cave speleothem
148(1)
3.8.4.4 Speleothem formation and sea-level variations
149(1)
3.8.4.5 Speleothem formation and tectonic activity
149(1)
3.8.4.6 Speleothem formation and rates of denudation
149(1)
3.8.5 Other carbonate deposits
149(2)
3.9 Lake, mire and bog sediments
151(14)
3.9.1 Introduction
151(1)
3.9.2 The nature of lake and bog sediments
152(2)
3.9.3 Palaeoenvironmental evidence from lake sediments
154(7)
3.9.3.1 Lake sediments and landscape changes
155(4)
3.9.3.2 Lake-level variations and climatic changes
159(1)
3.9.3.3 Lake sediments and palaeotemperatures
160(1)
3.9.4 Palaeoenvironmental evidence from mire and bog sediments
161(4)
3.9.4.1 Palaeoprecipitation records from ombrotrophic peats
161(2)
3.9.4.2 Stable isotope records from ombrotrophic peats
163(2)
3.9.4.3 Human impact recorded in ombrotrophic peat
165(1)
3.10 The deep-sea sediment record
165(7)
3.10.1 The nature and origin of ocean sediments
165(1)
3.10.2 Oxygen isotope ratios and the ocean sediment record
166(4)
3.10.2.1 General principles
166(1)
3.10.2.2 Glacial ice storage and the marine oxygen isotope record
167(2)
3.10.2.3 Ice volumes, sea level and the marine oxygen isotope record
169(1)
3.10.2.4 Sea-surface temperatures and the marine oxygen isotope record
170(1)
3.10.3 Limitations of oxygen isotope analysis
170(1)
3.10.3.1 Stratigraphic resolution
170(1)
3.10.3.2 Sediment mixing
171(1)
3.10.3.3 Isotopic equilibrium between test carbonate and ocean water
171(1)
3.10.3.4 Carbonate dissolution and diagenesis
171(1)
3.10.4 Carbon isotopes in marine sediments
171(1)
3.11 Ice-core stratigraphy
172(6)
3.11.1 A brief history of deep-ice coring
172(1)
3.11.2 Ice masses as palaeoenvironmental archives
173(1)
3.11.3 Analysis of ice cores
173(2)
3.11.3.1 Annual ice increments
173(2)
3.11.3.2 Dust content
175(1)
3.11.3.3 Chemical content
175(1)
3.11.3.4 Stable isotope records
175(1)
3.11.3.5 Other trace substances
175(1)
3.11.4 Palaeoenvironmental significance of ice cores
175(3)
3.12 Conclusions
178(1)
Notes
179(2)
4 Biological evidence 181(86)
4.1 Introduction
181(2)
4.1.1 The nature of the Quaternary fossil record
181(1)
4.1.2 The taphonomy of Quaternary fossil assemblages
182(1)
4.1.3 The interpretation of Quaternary fossil assemblages
182(1)
4.2 Pollen analysis
183(14)
4.2.1 Introduction
183(1)
4.2.2 The nature of pollen and spores
183(1)
4.2.3 Field and laboratory work
184(1)
4.2.4 Pollen diagrams
185(5)
4.2.5 The interpretation of pollen diagrams
190(4)
4.2.6 Applications of pollen stratigraphy
194(3)
4.2.6.1 Local vegetation reconstructions
194(1)
4.2.6.2 Regional vegetation reconstructions
194(1)
4.2.6.3 Space—time reconstructions
195(1)
4.2.6.4 Human impact on vegetation cover
195(2)
4.2.6.5 Pollen data and climatic reconstructions
197(1)
4.3 Diatom analysis
197(10)
4.3.1 Introduction
197(1)
4.3.2 The nature and ecology of diatoms
198(2)
4.3.3 Field and laboratory methods
200(2)
4.3.4 The interpretation of Quaternary diatom records
202(1)
4.3.5 Applications of diatom analysis
202(5)
4.3.5.1 Diatoms as salinity indicators
202(1)
4.3.5.2 Diatoms and pH
203(2)
4.3.5.3 Diatoms and trophic status
205(1)
4.3.5.4 Diatoms and the archaeological record
205(1)
4.3.5.5 Other environmental applications
206(1)
4.4 Plant macrofossil analysis
207(8)
4.4.1 Introduction
207(1)
4.4.2 The nature of plant macrofossils
207(1)
4.4.3 Field and laboratory work
208(1)
4.4.4 Data presentation
208(1)
4.4.5 The interpretation of plant macrofossil data
209(3)
4.4.6 Palaeoenvironmental applications of plant macrofossil studies
212(3)
4.4.6.1 Palaeoclimatic reconstructions
212(2)
4.4.6.2 Forest history
214(1)
4.4.6.3 Charcoal and fire history
214(1)
4.4.6.4 Archaeological records
215(1)
4.5 Fossil insect remains
215(13)
4.5.1 Introduction
215(1)
4.5.2 Coleoptera
215(1)
4.5.3 Laboratory methods
216(2)
4.5.4 Coleopteran analysis and Quaternary environments
218(7)
4.5.4.1 Habitat preferences
219(2)
4.5.4.2 Palaeoclimatic inferences based on coleopteran assemblages
221(4)
4.5.4.3 Insect fossils and archaeology
225(1)
4.5.5 Chironomidae
225(3)
4.6 Non-marine Mollusca
228(7)
4.6.1 Introduction
228(1)
4.6.2 The nature and distribution of molluscs
229(1)
4.6.3 Field and laboratory work
229(2)
4.6.4 Taphonomy of non-marine molluscan assemblages
231(1)
4.6.5 Interpretation of non-marine molluscan assemblages: habitat groups and indices of species diversity
232(1)
4.6.6 Applications of Quaternary non-marine molluscan records
233(2)
4.6.6.1 Biostratigraphic correlation
233(1)
4.6.6.2 Palaeoclimatic reconstructions
234(1)
4.6.6.3 Archaeological relevance
234(1)
4.7 Marine Mollusca
235(3)
4.7.1 Introduction
235(1)
4.7.2 Analysis of marine molluscan assemblages
235(1)
4.7.3 Marine Mollusca and palaeoclimatic inferences
236(1)
4.7.4 Other applications of fossil marine molluscan records
237(1)
4.8 Ostracod analysis
238(3)
4.8.1 The nature and distribution of ostracods
238(1)
4.8.2 Collection and identification
238(1)
4.8.3 Ostracoda in Quaternary studies
239(2)
4.9 Foraminiferal analysis
241(3)
4.9.1 The nature and distribution of Foraminifera
241(1)
4.9.2 Collection and identification
242(1)
4.9.3 Foraminifera in Quaternary inshore and shelf sediments
242(2)
4.9.3.1 Sea-level change
242(1)
4.9.3.2 Shallow marine water mass and temperature variations
243(1)
4.9.3.3 Other palaeoenvironmental applications
244(1)
4.10 Micropalaeontology of deep-sea sediments
244(10)
4.10.1 Introduction
244(1)
4.10.2 Radiolaria
244(1)
4.10.3 Coccolithophores
245(1)
4.10.4 Dinoflagellates (dinocysts)
246(1)
4.10.5 Marine microfossils in ocean sediments
246(2)
4.10.6 Laboratory separation of marine microfossils
248(1)
4.10.7 Marine palaeoclimatology
248(5)
4.10.8 Marine palaeoproductivity and palaeocirculation
253(1)
4.11 Vertebrate remains
254(9)
4.11.1 Introduction
254(1)
4.11.2 The structure of teeth and bones
254(2)
4.11.3 Fossilization of bone material
256(1)
4.11.4 Field and laboratory techniques
256(1)
4.11.5 The taphonomy of fossil vertebrate assemblages
257(1)
4.11.5.1 Cave and fissure deposits
257(1)
4.11.5.2 Lacustrine sediments
258(1)
4.11.5.3 Fluvial sediments
258(1)
4.11.6 Quaternary vertebrate records
258(5)
4.11.6.1 Vertebrate biostratigraphy
259(1)
4.11.6.2 Vertebrate biogeography
259(1)
4.11.6.3 Vertebrate fossils and Quaternary environments
260(2)
4.11.6.4 Vertebrate fossils and faunal evolution
262(1)
4.12 Other fossil groups
263(2)
4.12.1 Chrysophytes
263(1)
4.12.2 Cladocera
263(1)
4.12.3 Coral polyps
263(1)
4.12.4 Fungal remains
264(1)
4.12.5 Testate amoebae
264(1)
4.12.6 Biomarkers (ancient biomolecules)
265(1)
4.13 Multi-proxy palaeoecological studies
265(1)
4.14 Conclusions
266(1)
Notes
266(1)
5 Dating methods 267(80)
5.1 Introduction
267(1)
5.2 Precision and accuracy in Quaternary dating
267(1)
5.3 Radiometric dating techniques
268(30)
5.3.1 The nucleus and radioactivity
268(2)
5.3.2 Radiocarbon dating
270(14)
5.3.2.1 General principles
270(1)
5.3.2.2 Measurement of 14C activity
271(4)
5.3.2.3 Quality assurance in radiocarbon dating
275(1)
5.3.2.4 Sources of error in radiocarbon dating
275(4)
5.3.2.5 Radiocarbon dating of soils
279(1)
5.3.2.6 Calibration of the radiocarbon timescale
279(5)
5.3.3 Argon-isotope dating
284(2)
5.3.3.1 Potassium—argon dating
284(1)
5.3.3.2 Argon—argon (Ar/Ar) dating
285(1)
5.3.3.3 Problems and limitations of argon-isotope dating
285(1)
5.3.3.4 Some applications of argon-isotope dating
285(1)
5.3.4 Uranium-series (U-series) dating
286(3)
5.3.4.1 General principles
286(1)
5.3.4.2 Measurement, problems and age range
287(1)
5.3.4.3 Some applications of U-series dating
288(1)
5.3.5 Fission track dating
289(2)
5.3.5.1 General principles
289(1)
5.3.5.2 Measurement and problems
290(1)
5.3.5.3 Some applications of fission track dating
290(1)
5.3.6 Luminescence dating
291(2)
5.3.6.1 General principles
291(1)
5.3.6.2 Measurement and problems
291(1)
5.3.6.3 Developments in luminescence dating
292(1)
5.3.6.4 Age ranges and applications of luminescence dating
293(1)
5.3.7 Electron spin resonance (ESR) dating
293(1)
5.3.7.1 General principles and measurement
293(1)
5.3.7.2 Sources of error in ESR dating
294(1)
5.3.7.3 Some applications of ESR dating
294(1)
5.3.8 Cosmogenic radionuclide (CRN) dating
294(2)
5.3.8.1 General principles
294(1)
5.3.8.2 Measurement and problems
295(1)
5.3.8.3 Some applications of CRN dating
296(1)
5.3.9 Short-lived radioactive isotopes
296(2)
5.3.9.1 Lead-210
297(1)
5.3.9.2 Caesium-137
297(1)
5.3.9.3 Silicon-32
298(1)
5.4 Incremental dating methods
298(21)
5.4.1 Dendrochronology
298(6)
5.4.1.1 General principles
298(1)
5.4.1.2 Measurement and problems
298(2)
5.4.1.3 Dendrochronological records
300(2)
5.4.1.4 Dendroclimatology
302(2)
5.4.2 Varve chronology
304(6)
5.4.2.1 The nature of varved sediments
304(1)
5.4.2.2 Clastic varves
304(1)
5.4.2.3 Organic (biogenic) varves)
305(1)
5.4.2.4 Chemical varves
306(1)
5.4.2.5 Complex varves
306(1)
5.4.2.6 Sources of error in varve counting
306(1)
5.4.2.7 Applications of varve chronologies
307(3)
5.4.3 Annual layers in glacier ice
310(5)
5.4.3.1 General principles
310(2)
5.4.3.2 Errors in ice-core chronologies
312(1)
5.4.3.3 Ice-core chronologies
312(3)
5.4.4 Lichenometry
315(1)
5.4.4.1 General principles
315(1)
5.4.4.2 Sources of error in lichenometric dating
315(1)
5.4.4.3 Some applications of lichenometry
316(1)
5.4.5 Other materials dated by annual increments
316(3)
5.4.5.1 Speleothems
316(1)
5.4.5.2 Sclerochronology
317(2)
5.5 Age-equivalent stratigraphic markers
319(13)
5.5.1 Palaeomagnetism
319(6)
5.5.1.1 Geomagnetic field and remanent magnetism
319(1)
5.5.1.2 Magnetostratigraphy
320(5)
5.5.2 Tephrochronology
325(5)
5.5.2.1 General principles
325(2)
5.5.2.2 Sources of error in tephrochronology
327(1)
5.5.2.3 Applications of tephrochronology
327(3)
5.5.3 Oxygen isotope chronology
330(1)
5.5.4 Biostratigraphy and molecular clocks
331(1)
5.6 Relative chronology based on processes of chemical alteration
332(11)
5.6.1 Amino-acid geochronology
332(7)
5.6.1.1 Chemistry of proteins
332(2)
5.6.1.2 Amino-acid diagenesis
334(1)
5.6.1.3 Aminostratigraphy and age control
334(1)
5.6.1.4 Problems with amino-acid geochronology
334(2)
5.6.1.5 Recent developments in amino-acid geochronology
336(1)
5.6.1.6 Some applications of amino-acid geochronology
336(3)
5.6.2 Fluorine, uranium and nitrogen content of fossil bones
339(1)
5.6.3 Obsidian hydration dating (OHD)
340(1)
5.6.3.1 General principles
340(1)
5.6.3.2 Problems with obsidian hydration dating
340(1)
5.6.3.3 Some applications of obsidian hydration dating
340(1)
5.6.4 Weathering characteristics of rock surfaces
340(2)
5.6.4.1 General principles
340(1)
5.6.4.2 Problems in using surface weathering features as indicators of relative age
341(1)
5.6.3.4 Some applications of surface weathering dating
342(1)
5.6.5 Pedogenesis
342(5)
5.6.5.1 General principles
342(1)
5.6.5.2 Problems in using pedogenesis as a basis for dating
342(1)
5.6.5.3 Some applications of relative dating based on degree of pedogenesis
343(1)
5.7 Stratigraphic and temporal resolution
343(1)
5.8 Conclusions
344(1)
Notes
345(2)
6 Approaches to Quaternary stratigraphy and correlation 347(32)
6.1 Introduction
347(1)
6.2 Stratigraphic subdivision
347(15)
6.2.1 Principles of Quaternary stratigraphy
347(2)
6.2.2 Stratotypes
349(1)
6.2.3 Elements of Quaternary stratigraphy
349(13)
6.2.3.1 Lithostratigraphy
349(4)
6.2.3.2 Biostratigraphy
353(1)
6.2.3.3 Morphostratigraphy
354(1)
6.2.3.4 Soil stratigraphy
355(1)
6.2.3.5 Oxygen isotope stratigraphy
355(3)
6.2.3.6 Climatostratigraphy
358(3)
6.2.3.7 Chronostratigraphy
361(1)
6.3 Time-stratigraphic correlation
362(16)
6.3.1 Principles of Quaternary correlation
362(1)
6.3.2 Bases for time-stratigraphic correlation
363(3)
6.3.2.1 Palaeomagnetic correlation
363(1)
6.3.2.2 Correlation using tephra layers
364(1)
6.3.2.3 Correlation using palaeosols
364(1)
6.3.2.4 Shoreline correlation
364(1)
6.3.2.5 Correlation on the basis of radiometric dating
365(1)
6.3.2.6 Event stratigraphy and correlation
365(1)
6.3.2.7 Correlation using the marine oxygen isotope record
366(1)
6.3.3 Correlation between continental, marine and ice-core records
366(14)
6.3.3.1 Long-term correlation on Milankovitch timescales
367(4)
6.3.3.2 Correlation on sub-Milankovitch timescales
371(3)
6.3.3.3 Synchronizing records of past environmental change
374(4)
6.4 Conclusions
378(1)
7 Global environmental change during the Quaternary 379(66)
7.1 Introduction
379(1)
7.2 Environmental simulation models (ESMs)
380(9)
7.2.1 Introduction
380(1)
7.2.2 Box models
380(1)
7.2.3 General circulation models (GCMs)
381(2)
7.2.4 Earth system models of intermediate complexity (EMICs)
383(3)
7.2.5 Transient simulations
386(1)
7.2.6 Palaeodata-model comparisons
387(1)
7.2.7 Limitations of ESMs
388(1)
7.2.8 The importance of ESMs in Quaternary research
388(1)
7.3 Climatic change over Milankovitch timescales
389(10)
7.3.1 Introduction
389(1)
7.3.2 The Mid-Pleistocene Transition (MPT)
390(4)
7.3.3 The glacial—interglacial cycles of the last 800 ka
394(3)
7.3.4 Overview
397(2)
7.4 Environmental change over sub-orbital (millennial) timescales
399(14)
7.4.1 Introduction
399(1)
7.4.2 Ice—ocean—climate interplay in the North Atlantic
400(5)
7.4.3 A bipolar teleconnection
405(2)
7.4.4 Global teleconnections: linking mechanisms
407(5)
7.4.5 Overview
412(1)
7.5 The Last Termination
413(14)
7.5.1 Introduction
413(1)
7.5.2 Definition of the Last Termination
413(2)
7.5.3 Onset of the Last Termination
415(3)
7.5.4 Global teleconnections during the Last Termination
418(1)
7.5.5 Synchronizing records of Lateglacial age
419(8)
7.5.5.1 Introduction
419(1)
7.5.5.2 Lateglacial stratigraphy and chronology
419(1)
7.5.5.3 Lateglacial age models and correlation procedures
420(1)
7.5.5.4 Rapid environmental change during the Lateglacial
421(6)
7.6 Climate and the Holocene
427(13)
7.6.1 Introduction
427(1)
7.6.2 Holocene climate trends
427(1)
7.6.3 Holocene climatic events
428(6)
7.6.3.1 The Pleistocene—Holocene transition
428(1)
7.6.3.2 The 8.2 ka event
429(2)
7.6.3.3 The 4.2 ka event
431(2)
7.6.3.4 The 2.8 ka event
433(1)
7.6.3.5 The Little Ice Age
433(1)
7.6.4 Holocene climatic cycles
434(2)
7.6.4.1 Late Holocene solar cycles
434(1)
7.6.4.2 El Nino—Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
435(1)
7.6.4.3 Late Holocene Atlantic and Pacific Oscillations
435(1)
7.6.5 People and climate
436(3)
7.6.5.1 The greenhouse effect
437(1)
7.6.5.2 Early human impact?
438(1)
7.6.5.3 Delayed glaciation?
439(1)
7.6.6 The Anthropocene
439(1)
7.7 Concluding remarks
440(3)
Notes
443(2)
References 445(78)
Index 523
John Lowe is former Gordon Manley Professor of Geography and Quaternary Science, and now Emeritus Professor of Quaternary Science, Royal Holloway University of London.



Mike Walker is Emeritus Professor of Quaternary Science, School of Archaeology, History and Anthropology at Trinity Saint David, University of Wales, Lampeter, and Honorary Professor, Aberystwyth University.
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