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E-raamat: Reliability Engineering [Wiley Online]

(University of Maryland, College Park), (University of Washington, Seattle)
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Reliability EngineeringSuurem pilt
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Kapur and Pecht offer students and practitioners an integrated approach to the design, engineering, and management of reliability activities throughout the life cycle of a product. They present numerical examples and homework problems for such matters as probability and life distributions for reliability analysis, product requirements and constraints, selecting and managing parts, probabilistic design for reliability and the factor of safety, process control and process capability, analyzing product failures and root causes, and warranty analysis. Annotation ©2014 Ringgold, Inc., Portland, OR (protoview.com)

Using the authors' extensive experience in both industry and academia, this book presents an integrated approach for design, engineering and management of the reliability activities throughout the life cycle of a product which includes concept, research and development, design, manufacturing, assembly, sales and service.

An Integrated Approach to Product Development

Reliability Engineering presents an integrated approach to the design, engineering, and management of reliability activities throughout the life cycle of a product, including concept, research and development, design, manufacturing, assembly, sales, and service. Containing illustrative guides that include worked problems, numerical examples, homework problems, a solutions manual, and class-tested materials, it demonstrates to product development and manufacturing professionals how to distribute key reliability practices throughout an organization.

The authors explain how to integrate reliability methods and techniques in the Six Sigma process and Design for Six Sigma (DFSS). They also discuss relationships between warranty and reliability, as well as legal and liability issues. Other topics covered include:

  • Reliability engineering in the 21st Century
  • Probability life distributions for reliability analysis
  • Process control and process capability
  • Failure modes, mechanisms, and effects analysis
  • Health monitoring and prognostics
  • Reliability tests and reliability estimation

Reliability Engineering provides a comprehensive list of references on the topics covered in each chapter. It is an invaluable resource for those interested in gaining fundamental knowledge of the practical aspects of reliability in design, manufacturing, and testing. In addition, it is useful for implementation and management of reliability programs.

Preface xv
1 Reliability Engineering in the Twenty-First Century 1(18)
1.1 What Is Quality?
1(1)
1.2 What Is Reliability?
2(4)
1.2.1 The Ability to Perform as Intended
4(1)
1.2.2 For a Specified Time
4(1)
1.2.3 Life-Cycle Conditions
5(1)
1.2.4 Reliability as a Relative Measure
5(1)
1.3 Quality, Customer Satisfaction, and System Effectiveness
6(1)
1.4 Performance, Quality, and Reliability
7(1)
1.5 Reliability and the System Life Cycle
8(4)
1.6 Consequences of Failure
12(4)
1.6.1 Financial Loss
12(1)
1.6.2 Breach of Public Trust
13(2)
1.6.3 Legal Liability
15(1)
1.6.4 Intangible Losses
15(1)
1.7 Suppliers and Customers
16(1)
1.8 Summary
16(1)
Problems
17(2)
2 Reliability Concepts 19(26)
2.1 Basic Reliability Concepts
19(7)
2.1.1 Concept of Probability Density Function
23(3)
2.2 Hazard Rate
26(7)
2.2.1 Motivation and Development of Hazard Rate
27(1)
2.2.2 Some Properties of the Hazard Function
28(3)
2.2.3 Conditional Reliability
31(2)
2.3 Percentiles Product Life
33(2)
2.4 Moments of Time to Failure
35(4)
2.4.1 Moments about Origin and about the Mean
35(1)
2.4.2 Expected Life or Mean Time to Failure
36(1)
2.4.3 Variance or the Second Moment about the Mean
36(1)
2.4.4 Coefficient of Skewness
37(1)
2.4.5 Coefficient of Kurtosis
37(2)
2.5 Summary
39(1)
Problems
40(5)
3 Probability and Life Distributions for Reliability Analysis 45(44)
3.1 Discrete Distributions
45(10)
3.1.1 Binomial Distribution
46(4)
3.1.2 Poisson Distribution
50(1)
3.1.3 Other Discrete Distributions
50(5)
3.2 Continuous Distributions Si
3.2.1 Weibull Distribution
55(6)
3.2.2 Exponential Distribution
61(3)
3.2.3 Estimation of Reliability for Exponential Distribution
64(3)
3.2.4 The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution
67(6)
3.2.5 The Lognormal Distribution
73(2)
3.2.6 Gamma Distribution
75(2)
3.3 Probability Plots
77(6)
3.4 Summary
83(1)
Problems
84(5)
4 Design for Six Sigma 89(22)
4.1 What Is Six Sigma?
89(1)
4.2 Why Six Sigma?
90(1)
4.3 How Is Six Sigma Implemented?
91(7)
4.3.1 Steps in the Six Sigma Process
92(5)
4.3.2 Summary of the Six Sigma Steps
97(1)
4.4 Optimization Problems in the Six Sigma Process
98(5)
4.4.1 System Transfer Function
99(1)
4.4.2 Variance Transmission Equation
100(1)
4.4.3 Economic Optimization and Quality Improvement
101(1)
4.4.4 Tolerance Design Problem
102(1)
4.5 Design for Six Sigma
103(5)
4.5.1 Identify (I)
105(1)
4.5.2 Characterize (C)
106(1)
4.5.3 Optimize (O)
106(1)
4.5.4 Verify (V)
106(2)
4.6 Summary
108(1)
Problems
108(3)
5 Product Development 111(30)
5.1 Product Requirements and Constraints
112(1)
5.2 Product Life Cycle Conditions
113(1)
5.3 Reliability Capability
114(1)
5.4 Parts and Materials Selection
114(1)
5.5 Human Factors and Reliability
115(2)
5.6 Deductive versus Inductive Methods
117(1)
5.7 Failure Modes, Effects, and Criticality Analysis
117(2)
5.8 Fault Tree Analysis
119(9)
5.8.1 Role of FTA in Decision-Making
121(1)
5.8.2 Steps of Fault Tree Analysis
122(1)
5.8.3 Basic Paradigms for the Construction of Fault Trees
122(1)
5.8.4 Definition of the Top Event
122(1)
5.8.5 Faults versus Failures
122(5)
5.8.6 Minimal Cut Sets
127(1)
5.9 Physics of Failure
128(3)
5.9.1 Stress Margins
128(1)
5.9.2 Model Analysis of Failure Mechanisms
129(1)
5.9.3 Derating
129(1)
5.9.4 Protective Architectures
130(1)
5.9.5 Redundancy
131(1)
5.9.6 Prognostics
131(1)
5.10 Design Review
131(1)
5.11 Qualification
132(2)
5.12 Manufacture and Assembly
134(3)
5.12.1 Manufacturability
134(2)
5.12.2 Process Verification Testing
136(1)
5.13 Analysis, Product Failure, and Root Causes
137(1)
5.14 Summary
138(1)
Problems
138(3)
6 Product Requirements and Constraints 141(8)
6.1 Defining Requirements
141(1)
6.2 Responsibilities of the Supply Chain
142(2)
6.2.1 Multiple-Customer Products
142(1)
6.2.2 Single-Customer Products
143(1)
6.2.3 Custom Products
144(1)
6.3 The Requirements Document
144(1)
6.4 Specifications
144(2)
6.5 Requirements Tracking
146(1)
6.6 Summary
147(1)
Problems
147(2)
7 Life-Cycle Conditions 149(20)
7.1 Defining the Life-Cycle Profile
149(1)
7.2 Life-Cycle Events
150(2)
7.2.1 Manufacturing and Assembly
151(1)
7.2.2 Testing and Screening
151(1)
7.2.3 Storage
151(1)
7.2.4 Transportation
151(1)
7.2.5 Installation
151(1)
7.2.6 Operation
152(1)
7.2.7 Maintenance
152(1)
7.3 Loads and Their Effects
152(8)
7.3.1 Temperature
152(3)
7.3.2 Humidity
155(1)
7.3.3 Vibration and Shock
156(1)
7.3.4 Solar Radiation
156(1)
7.3.5 Electromagnetic Radiation
157(1)
7.3.6 Pressure
157(1)
7.3.7 Chemicals
158(1)
7.3.8 Sand and Dust
159(1)
7.3.9 Voltage
159(1)
7.3.10 Current
159(1)
7.3.11 Human Factors
160(1)
7.4 Considerations and Recommendations for LCP Development
160(5)
7.4.1 Extreme Specifications-Based Design (Global and Local Environments)
160(1)
7.4.2 Standards-Based Profiles
161(1)
7.4.3 Combined Load Conditions
161(4)
7.4.4 Change in Magnitude and Rate of Change of Magnitude
165(1)
7.5 Methods for Estimating Life-Cycle Loads
165(1)
7.5.1 Market Studies and Standards Based Profiles as Sources of Data
165(1)
7.5.2 In Situ Monitoring of Load Conditions
166(1)
7.5.3 Field Trial Records, Service Records, and Failure Records
166(1)
7.5.4 Data on Load Histories of Similar Parts, Assemblies, or Products
166(1)
7.6 Summary
166(1)
Problems
167(2)
8 Reliability Capability 169(8)
8.1 Capability Maturity Models
169(1)
8.2 Key Reliability Practices
170(5)
8.2.1 Reliability Requirements and Planning
170(1)
8.2.2 Training and Development
171(1)
8.2.3 Reliability Analysis
172(1)
8.2.4 Reliability Testing
172(1)
8.2.5 Supply-Chain Management
173(1)
8.2.6 Failure Data Tracking and Analysis
173(1)
8.2.7 Verification and Validation
174(1)
8.2.8 Reliability Improvement
174(1)
8.3 Summary
175(1)
Problems
175(2)
9 Parts Selection and Management 177(16)
9.1 Part Assessment Process
177(8)
9.1.1 Performance Assessment
178(1)
9.1.2 Quality Assessment
179(1)
9.1.3 Process Capability Index
179(3)
9.1.4 Average Outgoing Quality
182(1)
9.1.5 Reliability Assessment
182(3)
9.1.6 Assembly Assessment
185(1)
9.2 Parts Management
185(3)
9.2.1 Supply Chain Management
185(1)
9.2.2 Part Change Management
186(1)
9.2.3 Industry Change Control Policies
187(1)
9.3 Risk Management
188(2)
9.4 Summary
190(1)
Problems
191(2)
10 Failure Modes, Mechanisms, and Effects Analysis 193(14)
10.1 Development of FMMEA
193(2)
10.2 Failure Modes, Mechanisms, and Effects Analysis
195(6)
10.2.1 System Definition, Elements, and Functions
195(1)
10.2.2 Potential Failure Modes
196(1)
10.2.3 Potential Failure Causes
197(1)
10.2.4 Potential Failure Mechanisms
197(1)
10.2.5 Failure Models
197(1)
10.2.6 Life-Cycle Profile
198(1)
10.2.7 Failure Mechanism Prioritization
198(2)
10.2.8 Documentation
200(1)
10.3 Case Study
201(4)
10.4 Summary
205(1)
Problems
206(1)
11 Probabilistic Design for Reliability and the Factor of Safety 207(16)
11.1 Design for Reliability
207(1)
11.2 Design of a Tension Element
208(1)
11.3 Reliability Models for Probabilistic Design
209(2)
11.4 Example of Probabilistic Design and Design for a Reliability Target
211(1)
11.5 Relationship between Reliability, Factor of Safety, and Variability
212(3)
11.6 Functions of Random Variables
215(4)
11.7 Steps for Probabilistic Design
219(1)
11.8 Summary
219(1)
Problems
220(3)
12 Derating and Uprating 223(24)
12.1 Part Ratings
223(2)
12.1.1 Absolute Maximum Ratings
224(1)
12.1.2 Recommended Operating Conditions
224(1)
12.1.3 Factors Used to Determine Ratings
225(1)
12.2 Derating
225(14)
12.2.1 How Is Derating Practiced?
225(6)
12.2.2 Limitations of the Derating Methodology
231(7)
12.2.3 How to Determine These Limits
238(1)
12.3 Uprating
239(6)
12.3.1 Parts Selection and Management Process
241(1)
12.3.2 Assessment for Uprateability
241(1)
12.3.3 Methods of Uprating
242(3)
12.3.4 Continued Assurance
245(1)
12.4 Summary
245(1)
Problems
246(1)
13 Reliability Estimation Techniques 247(48)
13.1 Tests during the Product Life Cycle
247(2)
13.1.1 Concept Design and Prototype
247(1)
13.1.2 Performance Validation to Design Specification
248(1)
13.1.3 Design Maturity Validation
248(1)
13.1.4 Design and Manufacturing Process Validation
248(1)
13.1.5 Preproduction Low Volume Manufacturing
248(1)
13.1.6 High Volume Production
249(1)
13.1.7 Feedback from Field Data
249(1)
13.2 Reliability Estimation
249(1)
13.3 Product Qualification and Testing
250(13)
13.3.1 Input to PoF Qualification Methodology
250(5)
13.3.2 Accelerated Stress Test Planning and Development
255(2)
13.3.3 Specimen Characterization
257(2)
13.3.4 Accelerated Life Tests
259(1)
13.3.5 Virtual Testing
260(1)
13.3.6 Virtual Qualification
261(1)
13.3.7 Output
262(1)
13.4 Case Study: System-in-Package Drop Test Qualification
263(13)
13.4.1 Step 1: Accelerated Test Planning and Development
263(2)
13.4.2 Step 2: Specimen Characterization
265(1)
13.4.3 Step 3: Accelerated Life Testing
266(4)
13.4.4 Step 4: Virtual Testing
270(1)
13.4.5 Global FEA
271(1)
13.4.6 Strain Distributions Due to Modal Contributions
272(1)
13.4.7 Acceleration Curves
273(1)
13.4.8 Local FEA
273(1)
13.4.9 Step 5: Virtual Qualification
274(1)
13.4.10 PoF Acceleration Curves
275(1)
13.4.11 Summary of the Methodology for Qualification
276(1)
13.5 Basic Statistical Concepts
276(3)
13.5.1 Confidence Interval
277(1)
13.5.2 Interpretation of the Confidence Level
277(2)
13.5.3 Relationship between Confidence Interval and Sample Size
279(1)
13.6 Confidence Interval for Normal Distribution
279(3)
13.6.1 Unknown Mean with a Known Variance for Normal Distribution
279(1)
13.6.2 Unknown Mean with an Unknown Variance for Normal Distribution
280(1)
13.6.3 Differences in Two Population Means with Variances Known
281(1)
13.7 Confidence Intervals for Proportions
282(1)
13.8 Reliability Estimation and Confidence Limits for Success-Failure Testing
283(4)
13.8.1 Success Testing
286(1)
13.9 Reliability Estimation and Confidence Limits for Exponential Distribution
287(5)
13.10 Summary
292(1)
Problems
292(3)
14 Process Control and Process Capability 295(36)
14.1 Process Control System
295(4)
14.1.1 Control Charts: Recognizing Sources of Variation
297(1)
14.1.2 Sources of Variation
297(1)
14.1.3 Use of Control Charts for Problem Identification
297(2)
14.2 Control Charts
299(17)
14.2.1 Control Charts for Variables
306(1)
14.2.2 X-Bar and R Charts
306(2)
14.2.3 Moving Range Chart Example
308(3)
14.2.4 X-Bar and S Charts
311(1)
14.2.5 Control Charts for Attributes
312(1)
14.2.6 p Chart and np Chart
312(1)
14.2.7 np Chart Example
313(1)
14.2.8 c Chart and u Chart
314(1)
14.2.9 c Chart Example
315(1)
14.3 Benefits of Control Charts
316(1)
14.4 Average Outgoing Quality
317(6)
14.4.1 Process Capability Studies
318(5)
14.5 Advanced Control Charts
323(2)
14.5.1 Cumulative Sum Control Charts
323(1)
14.5.2 Exponentially Weighted Moving Average Control Charts
324(1)
14.5.3 Other Advanced Control Charts
325(1)
14.6 Summary
325(1)
Problems
326(5)
15 Product Screening and Burn-In Strategies 331(8)
15.1 Burn-In Data Observations
332(1)
15.2 Discussion of Burn-In Data
333(1)
15.3 Higher Field Reliability without Screening
334(1)
15.4 Best Practices
335(1)
15.5 Summary
336(1)
Problems
337(2)
16 Analyzing Product Failures and Root Causes 339(36)
16.1 Root-Cause Analysis Processes
341(10)
16.1.1 Preplanning
341(2)
16.1.2 Collecting Data for Analysis and Assessing Immediate Causes
343(1)
16.1.3 Root-Cause Hypothesization
344(4)
16.1.4 Analysis and Interpretation of Evidence
348(1)
16.1.5 Root-Cause Identification and Corrective Actions
348(2)
16.1.6 Assessment of Corrective Actions
350(1)
16.2 No-Fault-Found
351(22)
16.2.1 An Approach to Assess NFF
353(2)
16.2.2 Common Mode Failure
355(1)
16.2.3 Concept of Common Mode Failure
356(4)
16.2.4 Modeling and Analysis for Dependencies for Reliability Analysis
360(2)
16.2.5 Common Mode Failure Root Causes
362(2)
16.2.6 Common Mode Failure Analysis
364(2)
16.2.7 Common Mode Failure Occurrence and Impact Reduction
366(7)
16.3 Summary
373(1)
Problems
374(1)
17 System Reliability Modeling 375(34)
17.1 Reliability Block Diagram
375(1)
17.2 Series System
376(5)
17.3 Products with Redundancy
381(12)
17.3.1 Active Redundancy
381(4)
17.3.2 Standby Systems
385(2)
17.3.3 Standby Systems with Imperfect Switching
387(3)
17.3.4 Shared Load Parallel Models
390(1)
17.3.5 (k, n) Systems
391(2)
17.3.6 Limits of Redundancy
393(1)
17.4 Complex System Reliability
393(8)
17.4.1 Complete Enumeration Method
393(2)
17.4.2 Conditional Probability Method
395(1)
17.4.3 Concept of Coherent Structures
396(5)
17.5 Summary
401(1)
Problems
402(7)
18 Health Monitoring and Prognostics 409(24)
18.1 Conceptual Model for Prognostics
410(2)
18.2 Reliability and Prognostics
412(2)
18.3 PHM for Electronics
414(3)
18.4 PHM Concepts and Methods
417(3)
18.4.1 Fuses and Canaries
418(2)
18.5 Monitoring and Reasoning of Failure Precursors
420(9)
18.5.1 Monitoring Environmental and Usage Profiles for Damage Modeling
424(5)
18.6 Implementation of PHM in a System of Systems
429(2)
18.7 Summary
431(1)
Problems
431(2)
19 Warranty Analysis 433(18)
19.1 Product Warranties
434(1)
19.2 Warranty Return Information
435(1)
19.3 Warranty Policies
436(1)
19.4 Warranty and Reliability
437(2)
19.5 Warranty Cost Analysis
439(9)
19.5.1 Elements of Warranty Cost Models
440(1)
19.5.2 Failure Distributions
440(1)
19.5.3 Cost Modeling Calculation
440(1)
19.5.4 Modeling Assumptions and Notation
441(1)
19.5.5 Cost Models Examples
442(2)
19.5.6 Information Needs
444(2)
19.5.7 Other Cost Models
446(2)
19.6 Warranty and Reliability Management
448(1)
19.7 Summary
449(1)
Problems
449(2)
Appendix A: Some Useful Integrals 451(2)
Appendix B: Table for Gamma Function 453(2)
Appendix C: Table for Cumulative Standard Normal Distribution 455(2)
Appendix D: Values for the Percentage Points tαν of the t-Distribution 457(4)
Appendix E: Percentage Points χ2αν of the Chi-Square Distribution 461(6)
Appendix F: Percentage Points for the F-Distribution 467(6)
Bibliography 473(14)
Index 487
KAILASH C. KAPUR, PHD, is a Professor of Industrial & Systems Engineering at the University of Washington, where he was also the Director from 1993 to 1999. Dr. Kapur has worked with General Motors Research Laboratories as a senior research engineer, Ford Motor Company as a visiting scholar, and the U.S. Army, Tank-Automotive Command as a reliability engineer. He is a Fellow of ASQ and IIE, and a registered professional engineer.

MICHAEL G. PECHT, PHD, is the founder of CALCE (Center for Advanced Life Cycle Engineering) at the University of Maryland, which is funded by over 150 of the worlds leading electronics companies. He is also a Chair Professor in Mechanical Engineering and a Professor in Applied Mathematics at the University of Maryland. He consults for twenty-two major international electronics companies.
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