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E-raamat: Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells [Taylor & Francis e-raamat]

Edited by (Institute of Microtechnology, University of Neuchatel, Switzerland)
  • Formaat: 440 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 15-Apr-2021
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-13: 9780429136054
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Thin-Film Silicon Solar CellsSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: 440 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 15-Apr-2021
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-13: 9780429136054
Teised raamatud teemal:
Taylor & Francis e-raamatudRohkem infot Taylor & Francis e-raamatute kohta
Raamatu kodulehekülg: https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429136054

Photovoltaic technology has now developed to the extent that it is close to fulfilling the vision of a "solar-energy world," as devices based on this technology are becoming efficient, low-cost and durable. This book provides a comprehensive treatment of thin-film silicon, a prevalent PV material, in terms of its semiconductor nature, starting out with the physical properties, but concentrating on device applications. A special emphasis is given to amorphous silicon and microcrystalline silicon as photovoltaic materials, along with a model that allows these systems to be physically described in the simplest manner possible, thus allowing the student or scientist/engineer entering the field of thin-film electronics to master a few basic concepts that are distinct from those in the field of conventional semiconductors. The main part of the book deals with solar cells and modules by illustrating the basic functioning of these devices, along with their limitations, design optimization, testing and fabrication methods. Among the manufacturing processes discussed are plasma-assisted and hot-wire deposition, sputtering, and structuring techniques.

1 Introduction
1(16)
1.1 A strong market growth from 1999 to 2008
1(1)
1.2 A technology coming to maturity: crystalline silicon
2(2)
1.3 High-efficiency crystalline silicon solar cells
4(1)
1.4 The silicon feed-stock issue: a trigger for thin-film deployment
5(3)
1.5 Thin-film silicon: a unique thin-film technology with a "long" history
8(1)
1.6 Amorphous silicon, microcrystalline silicon and "micromorph" devices
9(2)
1.7 Synergy with the display sector and emergence of a large PV sector
11(2)
1.8 Perspectives and challenges for thin-film silicon technology
13(2)
1.9 References
15(2)
2 Basic Properties of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si: H)
17(80)
2.1 Introduction
17(7)
2.1.1 Structure of amorphous silicon
18(4)
2.1.2 "Free" and "trapped" carriers (electrons and holes); mobility gap
22(2)
2.2 Gap states
24(11)
2.2.1 Bandtail states
24(3)
2.2.2 Midgap states: dangling bonds
27(3)
2.2.3 Light-induced degradation (Staebler-Wronski effect)
30(5)
2.3 Optical absorption: optical gap and sub-bandgap absorption
35(12)
2.3.1 Absorption coefficient plot
36(2)
2.3.2 Link between density of states and absorption coefficient
38(2)
2.3.3 Exponential density of states in bandtails and Urbach energy in plot of absorption coefficient
40(1)
2.3.4 Determination of the optical gap
41(3)
2.3.5 Relationship between sub-bandgap absorption
44(1)
2.3.6 Measurement of sub-bandgap absorption
44(3)
2.4 Transport, conductivity and recombination
47(14)
2.4.1 Transport model
47(1)
2.4.2 Measurement of conductivity in a co-planar configuration
48(1)
2.4.3 Dark conductivity σ dark
49(4)
2.4.4 Recombination
53(5)
2.4.5 Photoconductivity
58(3)
2.5 Doping of amorphous silicon layers
61(3)
2.6 Hydrogen in a-Si: H
64(10)
2.6.1 Introduction
64(1)
2.6.2 Hydrogen incorporation
65(2)
2.6.3 Hydrogen dilution during deposition
67(1)
2.6.4 Hydrogen effusion and hydrogen surface desorption
67(3)
2.6.5 Hydrogen diffusion
70(1)
2.6.6 Hydrogen solubility effects
70(3)
2.6.7 Hydrogen effects on optoelectronic properties
73(1)
2.6.8 Effect of hydrogen incorporation on the bandgap of a-Si: H
73(1)
2.6.9 Stability of dangling bond passivation
74(2)
2.6.10 Hydrogen and material microstructure
74(1)
2.6.11 Role of hydrogen in light-induced degradation
74(2)
2.7 Amorphous silicon-germanium and silcon-carbon Alloys
76(11)
2.7.1 Introduction
76(1)
2.7.2 Fabrication
77(2)
2.7.3 Structure of a-Si: Ge: H and a-Si: C: H alloys
79(1)
2.7.4 Hydrogen incorporation, effusion, surface desorption and diffusion
80(2)
2.7.5 Microstructural effects (voids)
82(1)
2.7.6 Dangling bonds, density of defect states
83(1)
2.7.7 Hydrogen stability versus alloy composition
84(1)
2.7.8 Doping effects
84(1)
2.7.9 Light-induced degradation
84(1)
2.7.10 Optical absorption
84(1)
2.7.11 Electronic transport properties
85(1)
2.7.12 Slope of the valence bandtail; Urbach energy
86(1)
2.7.13 Strategies for obtaining good quality alloys
87(1)
2.8 Conclusions
87(2)
2.9 References
89(8)
3 Basic Properties of Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon
97(48)
3.1 History
97(4)
3.2 Structural properties of μ-Si: H
101(23)
3.2.1 Structure
101(6)
3.2.2 Defects and gap states
107(6)
3.2.3 Hydrogen, defect passivation, impurities and doping
113(5)
3.2.4 Schematic picture for the structure of μ-Si: H
118(4)
3.2.5 Relationships between structural and other properties of μ-Si: H material
122(2)
3.3 Optical properties
124(2)
3.4 Electronic properties and transport
126(5)
3.5 Metastability - instability
131(1)
3.6 Alloys
132(2)
3.7 Summary
134(1)
3.8 References
135(10)
4 Theory of Solar Cell Devices (Semi-Conductor Diodes)
145(31)
Part I Introduction and "pin-Type" Diodes
145(1)
4.1 Conversion of light into electrical carriers by a semi-conductor diode
145(9)
4.1.1 First step: generation of electron-hole pairs
145(7)
4.1.2 Second step: separation of electrons and holes
152(2)
4.2 The "pn-type" or "classical" diode: dark characteristics
154(4)
4.3 The "pn-type" or "classical" diode: Properties under illumination
158(11)
4.3.1 Photo-generation and superposition principle (ideal case)
158(2)
4.3.2 Limitations of a "real" diode (under illumination)
160(3)
4.3.3 Maximum power point (MPP) and fill factor (FF) of a solar cell
163(1)
4.3.4 Basic solar cell parameters JSC, VOC, FF
164(5)
4.4 Limits on solar cell efficiency
169(7)
4.4.1 Limits at standard test conditions (STC)
169(2)
4.4.2 Variation in light intensity
171(1)
4.4.3 Variation in operating temperature
172(3)
4.4.4 Variation in the specturm of the incoming light
175(1)
4 Theory of Solar Cell Devices (Semi-Conductor Diodes)
176(61)
Part II "pin-Type" Solar Cells
176(1)
4.5 Introduction to "pin-type" solar cells
176(13)
4.5.1 Basic structure and properties
176(3)
4.5.2 Formation of the internal electric field
179(4)
4.5.3 Carrier profiles in the intrinsic layer: free carriers pf and nf
183(3)
4.5.4 Trapped charge carriers pt and nt in bandtails
186(3)
4.6 Effect of trapped charge in valence and conduction bandtails on electric field and carrier transport
189(4)
4.6.1 Deformation of electric field in i-layer by trapped carriers: Concept
189(1)
4.6.2 Deformation of electric field in i-layer by trapped carriers: numerical simulations for amorphous silicon
190(2)
4.6.3 Mobilities in amorphous and microcrystalline silicon
192(1)
4.7 Dangling bonds and their role in field deformation
193(8)
4.7.1 Dangling bond charge states
193(3)
4.7.2 Field deformation by charged dangling bonds within the i-layer: Concept
196(2)
4.7.3 Field deformation by charged dangling bonds within the i-layer: numerical simulation for an amorphous silicon solar cell with di= 300 nm
198(1)
4.7.4 Field deformation within the i-layer: summary of situation for different i-layer thicknesses
198(3)
4.8 Recombination and Collection
201(4)
4.8.1 p/i and i/n interfaces
201(2)
4.8.2 Recombination
203(1)
4.8.3 Collection and drift lengths
204(1)
4.9 Electrical description of the pin-solar cell
205(11)
4.9.1 Equivalent circuit and extended "superposition principle"
205(5)
4.9.2 Shunts
210(1)
4.9.3 Variable illumination measurements (VIM)
211(2)
4.9.4 Reverse saturation current Jo and open ciruit voltage Voc
213(1)
4.9.5 Fill factor in pin-type thin-film silicon solar cells
214(1)
4.9.6 Limits for the short-circuit current Jsc in pin-type thin-film silicon solar cells
215(1)
4.10 Light-induced degradation or "Staebler-Wronski effect" in thin-film silicon solar cells
216(2)
4.11 Spectral response, light trapping and efficiency limits
218(13)
4.11.1 Spectral response (SR) and external quantum efficiency (EQE) measurements
218(3)
4.11.2 Light trapping in thin-film silicon solar cells
221(4)
4.11.3 Limits for the efficiency η in pin-type thin-film silicon solar cells
225(4)
4.11.4 Summary and conclusions
229(2)
4.12 References
231(6)
5 Tandem and Multi-Junction Solar Cells
237(32)
5.1 Introduction, general concept
237(3)
5.2 Principle of the two-terminal tandem cell
240(6)
5.2.1 Construction of basic J-V diagram: Rules for finding tandem Jsc, Voc, FF
240(2)
5.2.2 Recombination (tunnel) junction
242(1)
5.2.3 Efficiency limits for tandems
243(3)
5.3 Practical problems of two-terminal tandem cells
246(5)
5.3.1 Light trapping
246(2)
5.3.2 Efficiency variation due to changes in the solar spectrum
248(1)
5.3.3 Temperature coefficients
248(1)
5.3.4 Pinholes and Shunts
249(1)
5.3.5 Cracks
250(1)
5.4 Typical tandem and multi-junction cells
251(4)
5.4.1 Amorphous tandem cells a-Si: H/a-Si: H
251(1)
5.4.2 Triple-junction amorphous cells with germanium
252(1)
5.4.3 Micromorph (a-Si: H/μc-Si: H) tandem cells
253(1)
5.4.4 Triple-junctions with microcrystalline silicon
254(1)
5.5 Spectral response (SR) and External Quantum Efficiency (EQE) measurements
255(9)
5.5.1 General principles
255(1)
5.5.2 Use of "colored" bias light beams for SR/EQE- measurements on tandems and triple-junction cells
256(1)
5.5.3 SR/EQE measurements for a-Si: H/a-Si: H tandem cells
257(1)
5.5.4 Shunt detection in sub-cells by SR/EQE measurements
258(2)
5.5.5 SR/EOE measurements for triple-junction cells
260(1)
5.5.6 SR/EQE measurements for "micromorph" tandem cells
260(2)
5.5.7 Necessity for voltage correction (with bias voltage)
262(2)
5.6 Conclusions
264(2)
5.7 References
266(3)
6 Module Fabrication and Performance
269(100)
6.1 Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)
269(37)
6.1.1 Electrical Plasma properties
273(4)
6.1.2 VHF plasma excitation
277(6)
6.1.3 Device-grade material
283(3)
6.1.4 Deposition parameters
286(1)
6.1.5 Deposition rate
287(5)
6.1.6 Deposition regimes for a-Si: H and μc-Si: H
292(5)
6.1.7 Upscaling
297(2)
6.1.8 Deposition systems
299(1)
6.1.9 Roll-to-roll depositions
300(4)
6.1.10 Novel deposition systems
304(2)
6.2 Hot-wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD)
306(5)
6.2.1 Introduction
306(1)
6.2.2 Description of the HWCVD technique
306(1)
6.2.3 Filament materials
307(1)
6.2.4 Types of materials deposited by HWCVD
307(1)
6.2.5 Mechanisms of the deposition process
308(1)
6.2.6 Filament aging
309(1)
6.2.7 Amorphous and microcrystalline silicon films, and microcrystalline silicon carbide alloys
309(2)
6.2.8 Silicon nitride and silicon oxynitride films
311(1)
6.3 Doped layers
311(5)
6.3.1 p-layers
312(2)
6.3.2 Doped microcrystalline layers
314(2)
6.4 Transparent conductive oxides (TCO) as contact materials
316(15)
6.4.1 Glass substrates and specific TCO materials
316(1)
6.4.2 Qualification of TCO materials
317(2)
6.4.3 Surface texture of TCO
319(5)
6.4.4 Cell optics
324(2)
6.4.5 Light management in cells
326(2)
6.4.6 Optical losses
328(3)
6.5 Laser scribing and series connection of cells
331(5)
6.5.1 Cell interconnection scheme
331(2)
6.5.2 Power losses due to the series connection of cells
333(3)
6.6 Module performance
336(15)
6.6.1 Efficiencies
336(2)
6.6.2 Energy yield
338(3)
6.6.3 Partial shading
341(5)
6.6.4 Shunting
346(5)
6.7 Module Finishing
351(8)
6.7.1 Encapsulation
352(3)
6.7.2 Module certification
355(1)
6.7.3 Long-term stability
356(3)
6.8 Conclusions
359(1)
6.9 References
360(9)
7 Examples of Solar Module Applications
369(32)
7.1 Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV): aspects and examples
369(13)
7.1.1 PV Facade in Munich (Germany)
371(2)
7.1.2 Alpine roof integrated PV
373(1)
7.1.3 PV Roof at Auvernier, Switzerland (by Reto Tscharner)
374(2)
7.1.4 PV installation in Brazil
376(4)
7.1.5 Stillwell Avenue Station, New York City
380(2)
7.2 Stand-alone and portable applications
382(3)
7.3 Indoor applications of amorphous silicon solar cells
385(3)
7.3.1 Why is amorphous silicon well suited for indoor applications?
386(1)
7.3.2 Design guidelines for solar powering of indoor applications
387(1)
7.4 Space applications
388(8)
7.4.1 Introduction
388(2)
7.4.2 Satellite power generators and specific power density
390(2)
7.4.3 Radiation resistance of a-Si: H and other PV technologies
392(1)
7.4.4 a-Si: H based cells for space
393(2)
7.4.5 Space applications of a-Si: H modules
395(1)
7.5 Conclusions
396(1)
7.6 References
397(4)
8 Thin-Film Electronics
401(24)
8.1 Thin-film transistors and display technology
401(12)
8.1.1 Introduction
401(1)
8.1.2 TFTs and flat panel displays
402(3)
8.1.3 TFT configurations and basic characteristics
405(2)
8.1.4 a-Si: H TFT operation
407(6)
8.1.5 μc-Si: H and poly-Si TFT performance and other issues
413(1)
8.2 Large-areaa imagers
413(2)
8.2.1 Introduction and device configuration
413(2)
8.2.2 Performance and limitations
415(1)
8.3 Thin-film sensors on CMOS Chips
415(5)
8.3.1 Introduction
415(2)
8.3.2 a-Si: H sensor integration
417(1)
8.3.3 Performance and limitations
418(2)
8.4 Conclusions
420(1)
8.5 References
421(4)
Index 425
Arvind V. Shah studied in Bombay, London and Zürich, receiving his Ph.D. in Applied Physics in 1968 from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETH). He worked at the ETH until founding the Centre for Electronics Design and Technology (CEDT) at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, in 1975. In March 1979, he was appointed professor of electronics at the University of Neuchâtel, and in 1988 began a concurrent, part-time appointment at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL). He is founder of Thin-film and Photovoltaics Laboratory at IMT Neuchâtel where he was involved with the invention of VHF plasma deposition and the pioneering work with microcrystalline silicon and micromorph tandem solar cells. Since 2000, he has been involved in the successful industrial transfer of technology, negotiating major licensing agreements both to start-up and established companies.
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