| Foreword |
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xi | |
| Series Preface |
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xiii | |
| Preface |
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xv | |
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xix | |
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1 Introduction to the Conceptual Landscape |
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1 | (4) |
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2 From Elementary Particles to Aerodynamic Flows |
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5 | (8) |
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3 Continuum Fluid Mechanics and the Navier-Stokes Equations |
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13 | (66) |
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3.1 The Continuum Formulation and Its Range of Validity |
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13 | (3) |
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3.2 Mathematical Formalism |
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16 | (2) |
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3.3 Kinematics: Streamlines, Streaklines, Timelines, and Vorticity |
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18 | (15) |
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3.3.1 Streamlines and Streaklines |
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18 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Streamtubes, Stream Surfaces, and the Stream Function |
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19 | (3) |
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22 | (1) |
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3.3.4 The Divergence of the Velocity and Green's Theorem |
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23 | (1) |
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3.3.5 Vorticity and Circulation |
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24 | (2) |
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3.3.6 The Velocity Potential in Irrotational Flow |
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26 | (1) |
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3.3.7 Concepts that Arise in Describing the Vorticity Field |
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26 | (3) |
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3.3.8 Velocity Fields Associated with Concentrations of Vorticity |
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29 | (2) |
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3.3.9 The Biot-Savart Law and the "Induction" Fallacy |
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31 | (2) |
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3.4 The Equations of Motion and their Physical Meaning |
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33 | (7) |
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3.4.1 Continuity of the Flow and Conservation of Mass |
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34 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Forces on Fluid Parcels and Conservation of Momentum |
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35 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Conservation of Energy |
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36 | (1) |
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3.4.4 Constitutive Relations and Boundary Conditions |
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37 | (1) |
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3.4.5 Mathematical Nature of the Equations |
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37 | (1) |
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3.4.6 The Physics as Viewed in the Eulerian Frame |
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38 | (2) |
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3.4.7 The Pseudo-Lagrangian Viewpoint |
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40 | (1) |
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3.5 Cause and Effect, and the Problem of Prediction |
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40 | (3) |
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3.6 The Effects of Viscosity |
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43 | (5) |
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3.7 Turbulence, Reynolds Averaging, and Turbulence Modeling |
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48 | (7) |
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3.8 Important Dynamical Relationships |
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55 | (5) |
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3.8.1 Galilean Invariance, or Independence of Reference Frame |
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55 | (1) |
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3.8.2 Circulation Preservation and the Persistence of Irrotationality |
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56 | (1) |
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3.8.3 Behavior of Vortex Tubes in Inviscid and Viscous Flows |
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57 | (1) |
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3.8.4 Bernoulli Equations and Stagnation Conditions |
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58 | (2) |
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60 | (1) |
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60 | (6) |
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3.9.1 Compressibility Effects and the Mach Number |
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63 | (1) |
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3.9.2 Viscous Effects and the Reynolds Number |
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63 | (1) |
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3.9.3 Scaling of Pressure Forces: the Dynamic Pressure |
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64 | (1) |
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3.9.4 Consequences of Failing to Match All of the Requirements for Similarity |
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65 | (1) |
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3.10 "Incompressible" Flow and Potential Flow |
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66 | (4) |
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3.11 Compressible Flow and Shocks |
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70 | (9) |
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3.11.1 Steady ID Isentropic Flow Theory |
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71 | (3) |
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3.11.2 Relations for Normal and Oblique Shock Waves |
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74 | (5) |
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79 | (84) |
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4.1 Physical Aspects of Boundary-Layer Flows |
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80 | (19) |
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4.1.1 The Basic Sequence: Attachment, Transition, Separation |
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80 | (2) |
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4.1.2 General Development of the Boundary-Layer Flowfield |
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82 | (8) |
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4.1.3 Boundary-Layer Displacement Effect |
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90 | (3) |
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4.1.4 Separation from a Smooth Wall |
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93 | (6) |
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4.2 Boundary-Layer Theory |
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99 | (18) |
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4.2.1 The Boundary-Layer Equations |
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100 | (8) |
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4.2.2 Integrated Momentum Balance in a Boundary Layer |
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108 | (2) |
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4.2.3 The Displacement Effect and Matching with the Outer Flow |
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110 | (3) |
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4.2.4 The Vorticity "Budget" in a 2D Incompressible Boundary Layer |
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113 | (1) |
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4.2.5 Situations That Violate the Assumptions of Boundary-Layer Theory |
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114 | (3) |
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4.2.6 Summary of Lessons from Boundary-Layer Theory |
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117 | (1) |
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4.3 Flat-Plate Boundary Layers and Other Simplified Cases |
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117 | (13) |
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117 | (4) |
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4.3.2 2D Boundary-Layer Flows with Similarity |
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121 | (2) |
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123 | (2) |
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4.3.4 Plane-of-Symmetry and Attachment-Line Boundary Layers |
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125 | (3) |
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4.3.5 Simplifying the Effects of Sweep and Taper in 3D |
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128 | (2) |
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4.4 Transition and Turbulence |
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130 | (20) |
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4.4.1 Boundary-Layer Transition |
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131 | (7) |
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4.4.2 Turbulent Boundary Layers |
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138 | (12) |
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4.5 Control and Prevention of Flow Separation |
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150 | (8) |
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4.5.1 Body Shaping and Pressure Distribution |
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150 | (1) |
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150 | (5) |
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4.5.3 Steady Tangential Blowing through a Slot |
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155 | (2) |
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4.5.4 Active Unsteady Blowing |
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157 | (1) |
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157 | (1) |
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4.6 Heat Transfer and Compressibility |
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158 | (4) |
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4.6.1 Heat Transfer, Compressibility, and the Boundary-Layer Temperature Field |
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158 | (1) |
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4.6.2 The Thermal Energy Equation and the Prandtl Number |
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159 | (1) |
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4.6.3 The Wall Temperature and Other Relations for an Adiabatic Wall |
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159 | (3) |
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4.7 Effects of Surface Roughness |
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162 | (1) |
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5 General Features of Flows around Bodies |
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163 | (28) |
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164 | (4) |
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5.2 Basic Topology of Flow Attachment and Separation |
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168 | (18) |
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5.2.1 Attachment and Separation in 2D |
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169 | (2) |
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5.2.2 Attachment and Separation in 3D |
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171 | (5) |
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5.2.3 Streamline Topology on Surfaces and in Cross Sections |
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176 | (10) |
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186 | (3) |
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5.4 Integrated Forces: Lift and Drag |
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189 | (2) |
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191 | (68) |
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6.1 Basic Physics and Flowfield Manifestations of Drag and Thrust |
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192 | (49) |
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6.1.1 Basic Physical Effects of Viscosity |
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193 | (1) |
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6.1.2 The Role of Turbulence |
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193 | (1) |
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6.1.3 Direct and Indirect Contributions to the Drag Force on the Body |
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194 | (2) |
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6.1.4 Determining Drag from the Flowfield: Application of Conservation Laws |
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196 | (8) |
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6.1.5 Examples of Flowfield Manifestations of Drag in Simple 2D Flows |
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204 | (3) |
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6.1.6 Pressure Drag of Streamlined and Bluff Bodies |
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207 | (3) |
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6.1.7 Questionable Drag Categories: Parasite Drag, Base Drag, and Slot Drag |
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210 | (2) |
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6.1.8 Effects of Distributed Surface Roughness on Turbulent Skin Friction |
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212 | (10) |
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222 | (3) |
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6.1.10 Some Basic Physics of Propulsion |
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225 | (16) |
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241 | (9) |
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6.2.1 Empirical Correlations |
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242 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Effects of Surface Roughness on Turbulent Skin Friction |
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243 | (7) |
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6.2.3 CFD Prediction of Drag |
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250 | (1) |
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250 | (9) |
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6.3.1 Reducing Drag by Maintaining a Run of Laminar Flow |
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251 | (1) |
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6.3.2 Reduction of Turbulent Skin Friction |
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251 | (8) |
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7 Lift and Airfoils in 2D at Subsonic Speeds |
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259 | (100) |
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7.1 Mathematical Prediction of Lift in 2D |
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260 | (5) |
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7.2 Lift in Terms of Circulation and Bound Vorticity |
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265 | (4) |
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7.2.1 The Classical Argument for the Origin of the Bound Vorticity |
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267 | (2) |
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7.3 Physical Explanations of Lift in 2D |
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269 | (38) |
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7.3.1 Past Explanations and their Strengths and Weaknesses |
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269 | (15) |
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7.3.2 Desired Attributes of a More Satisfactory Explanation |
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284 | (2) |
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7.3.3 A Basic Explanation of Lift on an Airfoil, Accessible to a Nontechnical Audience |
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286 | (16) |
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7.3.4 More Physical Details on Lift in 2D, for the Technically Inclined |
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302 | (5) |
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307 | (52) |
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7.4.1 Pressure Distributions and Integrated Forces at Low Mach Numbers |
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307 | (9) |
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7.4.2 Profile Drag and the Drag Polar |
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316 | (3) |
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7.4.3 Maximum Lift and Boundary-Layer Separation on Single-Element Airfoils |
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319 | (10) |
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7.4.4 Multielement Airfoils and the Slot Effect |
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329 | (6) |
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335 | (3) |
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7.4.6 Low-Drag Airfoils with Laminar Flow |
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338 | (3) |
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7.4.7 Low-Reynolds-Number Airfoils |
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341 | (1) |
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7.4.8 Airfoils in Transonic Flow |
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342 | (8) |
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7.4.9 Airfoils in Ground Effect |
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350 | (2) |
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352 | (2) |
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7.4.11 Issues that Arise in Defining Airfoil Shapes |
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354 | (5) |
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8 Lift and Wings in 3D at Subsonic Speeds |
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359 | (112) |
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8.1 The Flowfield around a 3D Wing |
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359 | (17) |
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8.1.1 General Characteristics of the Velocity Field |
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359 | (3) |
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362 | (9) |
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8.1.3 The Pressure Field around a 3D Wing |
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371 | (1) |
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8.1.4 Explanations for the Flowfield |
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371 | (4) |
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8.1.5 Vortex Shedding from Edges Other Than the Trailing Edge |
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375 | (1) |
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8.2 Distribution of Lift on a 3D Wing |
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376 | (9) |
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8.2.1 Basic and Additional Spanloads |
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376 | (3) |
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8.2.2 Linearized Lifting-Surface Theory |
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379 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Lifting-Line Theory |
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380 | (2) |
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8.2.4 3D Lift in Ground Effect |
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382 | (2) |
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8.2.5 Maximum Lift, as Limited by 3D Effects |
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384 | (1) |
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385 | (26) |
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8.3.1 Basic Scaling of Induced Drag |
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385 | (1) |
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8.3.2 Induced Drag from a Farfield Momentum Balance |
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386 | (3) |
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8.3.3 Induced Drag in Terms of Kinetic Energy and an Idealized Rolled-Up Vortex Wake |
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389 | (2) |
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8.3.4 Induced Drag from the Loading on the Wing Itself: Trefftz-Plane Theory |
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391 | (3) |
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8.3.5 Ideal (Minimum) Induced-Drag Theory |
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394 | (2) |
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8.3.6 Span-Efficiency Factors |
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396 | (1) |
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8.3.7 The Induced-Drag Polar |
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397 | (1) |
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8.3.8 The Sin-Series Spanloads |
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398 | (3) |
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8.3.9 The Reduction of Induced Drag in Ground Effect |
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401 | (1) |
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8.3.10 The Effect of a Fuselage on Induced Drag |
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402 | (2) |
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8.3.11 Effects of a Canard or Aft Tail on Induced Drag |
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404 | (5) |
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409 | (2) |
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411 | (16) |
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8.4.1 Myths Regarding the Vortex Wake, and Some Questionable Ideas for Wingtip Devices |
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411 | (3) |
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8.4.2 The Facts of Life Regarding Induced Drag and Induced-Drag Reduction |
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414 | (6) |
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8.4.3 Milestones in the Development of Theory and Practice |
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420 | (2) |
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8.4.4 Wingtip Device Concepts |
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422 | (1) |
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8.4.5 Effectiveness of Various Device Configurations |
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423 | (4) |
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8.5 Manifestations of Lift in the Atmosphere at Large |
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427 | (17) |
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8.5.1 The Net Vertical Momentum Imparted to the Atmosphere |
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427 | (2) |
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8.5.2 The Pressure Far above and below the Airplane |
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429 | (2) |
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8.5.3 Downwash in the Trefftz Plane and Other Momentum-Conservation Issues |
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431 | (4) |
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8.5.4 Sears's Incorrect Analysis of the Integrated Pressure Far Downstream |
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435 | (1) |
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8.5.5 The Real Flowfield Far Downstream of the Airplane |
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436 | (8) |
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8.6 Effects of Wing Sweep |
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444 | (27) |
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8.6.1 Simple Sweep Theory |
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444 | (5) |
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8.6.2 Boundary Layers on Swept Wings |
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449 | (15) |
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8.6.3 Shock/Boundary-Layer Interaction on Swept Wings |
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464 | (1) |
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8.6.4 Laminar-to-Turbulent Transition on Swept Wings |
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465 | (3) |
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8.6.5 Relating a Swept, Tapered Wing to a 2D Airfoil |
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468 | (1) |
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8.6.6 Tailoring of the Inboard Part of a Swept Wing |
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469 | (2) |
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9 Theoretical Idealizations Revisited |
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471 | (20) |
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9.1 Approximations Grouped According to how the Equations were Modified |
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471 | (11) |
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9.1.1 Reduced Temporal and/or Spatial Resolution |
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472 | (1) |
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9.1.2 Simplified Theories Based on Neglecting Something Small |
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472 | (1) |
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9.1.3 Reductions in Dimensions |
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472 | (1) |
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9.1.4 Simplified Theories Based on Ad hoc Flow Models |
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472 | (9) |
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9.1.5 Qualitative Anomalies and Other Consequences of Approximations |
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481 | (1) |
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9.2 Some Tools of MFD (Mental Fluid Dynamics) |
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482 | (9) |
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9.2.1 Simple Conceptual Models for Thinking about Velocity Fields |
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482 | (3) |
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9.2.2 Thinking about Viscous and Shock Drag |
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485 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Thinking about Induced Drag |
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486 | (1) |
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9.2.4 A Catalog of Fallacies |
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487 | (4) |
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10 Modeling Aerodynamic Flows in Computational Fluid Dynamics |
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491 | (36) |
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493 | (1) |
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10.2 The Major Classes of CFD Codes and Their Applications |
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493 | (8) |
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10.2.1 Navier-Stokes Methods |
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493 | (4) |
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10.2.2 Coupled Viscous/Inviscid Methods |
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497 | (1) |
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498 | (3) |
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10.2.4 Standalone Boundary-Layer Codes |
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501 | (1) |
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10.3 Basic Characteristics of Numerical Solution Schemes |
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501 | (7) |
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501 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Spatial Field Grids |
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502 | (4) |
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10.3.3 Grid Resolution and Grid Convergence |
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506 | (1) |
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10.3.4 Solving the Equations, and Iterative Convergence |
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507 | (1) |
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10.4 Physical Modeling in CFD |
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508 | (7) |
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10.4.1 Compressibility and Shocks |
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508 | (2) |
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10.4.2 Viscous Effects and Turbulence |
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510 | (1) |
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10.4.3 Separated Shear Layers and Vortex Wakes |
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511 | (2) |
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513 | (1) |
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514 | (1) |
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10.4.6 Propulsion Effects |
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515 | (1) |
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515 | (1) |
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10.6 Integrated Forces and the Components of Drag |
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516 | (1) |
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10.7 Solution Visualization |
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517 | (7) |
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10.8 Things a User Should Know about a CFD Code before Running it |
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524 | (3) |
| References |
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527 | (12) |
| Index |
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539 | |