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E-raamat: LNG Risk Based Safety - Modeling and Consequence Analysis: Modeling and Consequence Analysis [Wiley Online]

  • Formaat: 392 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 16-Apr-2010
  • Kirjastus: Wiley-AIChE
  • ISBN-10: 470590238
  • ISBN-13: 9780470590232
  • Wiley Online
  • Hind: 157,54 €*
  • * hind, mis tagab piiramatu üheaegsete kasutajate arvuga ligipääsu piiramatuks ajaks
  • Formaat: 392 pages
  • Ilmumisaeg: 16-Apr-2010
  • Kirjastus: Wiley-AIChE
  • ISBN-10: 470590238
  • ISBN-13: 9780470590232
The expert, all-inclusive guide on LNG risk based safety Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is the condensed form of natural gas achieved by cryogenic chilling. This process reduces gas to a liquid 600 times smaller in volume than it is in its original state, making it suitable for economical global transportation. LNG has been traded internationally and used with a good safety record since the 1960s. However, with some accidents occurring with the storage and liquefaction of LNG, a good understanding of its mechanisms, and its potential ramifications to facilities and to the nearby public, is becoming critically important. With an unbiased eye, this book leans on the expertise of its authors and LNG professionals worldwide to examine these serious safety issues, while addressing many false assumptions surrounding this volatile energy source.

LNG Risk Based Safety:





Summarizes the findings of the Governmental Accountability Office's (GAO) survey of nineteen LNG experts from across North America and Europe



Reviews the history of LNG technology developments



Systematically reviews the various consequences from LNG releases discharge, evaporation, dispersion, fire, and other impacts, and identifies best current approaches to model possible consequence zones



Includes discussion of case studies and LNG-related accidents over the past fifty years





Covering every aspect of this controversial topic, LNG Risk Based Safety informs the reader with firm conclusions based on highly credible investigation, and offers practical recommendations that researchers and developers can apply to reduce hazards and extend LNG technology.
Preface xv
LNG Properties and Overview of Hazards
1(19)
LNG Properties
2(2)
Hazards of LNG with Respect to Public Risk
4(6)
Flash Fire, Pool Fire, or Jet Fire
7(1)
Outdoor Vapor Cloud Explosions
8(1)
Enclosed Vapor Cloud Explosions
9(1)
Asphyxiation
9(1)
Freeze Burns
9(1)
RPT Explosions
10(1)
Roll Over
10(1)
Risk Analysis Requires Adequate Modeling
10(1)
Flammability
11(2)
Regulations in Siting Onshore LNG Import Terminals
13(3)
U.S. Marine LNG Risk and Security Regulation
13(1)
U.S. Land-Based LNG Risk and Security Regulation
14(1)
European and International Regulations
15(1)
Regulation for Siting Offshore LNG Import Terminals
16(1)
Controversial Claims of LNG Opponents
16(4)
LNG Incidents and Marine History
20(17)
LNG Ship Design History
20(2)
Initial Design Attempts
21(1)
Tank Materials
21(1)
Insulation Materials
21(1)
Tank Design
21(1)
Designs and Issues---First Commercial LNG Ships
22(5)
Membrane Technology
23(1)
Gaztransport Solution
24(1)
Spheres
25(1)
LNG Carriers for the Asian Trade
26(1)
Current State of LNG Tankers
27(1)
LNG Trade History
27(5)
European Trade
27(1)
Asian Trade
27(1)
Temporary Setbacks
28(1)
Revival of LNG with Worldwide Supply-Demand Pinch of Petroleum
28(1)
Supply History
29(1)
Some Economic Factors
30(2)
LNG Accident History
32(3)
Summary of LNG History and Relevant Technical Developments
35(2)
Current LNG Carriers
37(13)
Design Requirements
39(1)
Membrane Tanks
39(7)
Tank Design and Insulation
39(2)
Dimensions and Capacity
41(1)
Tank Materials and Insulation
42(2)
Pressure and Vacuum Relief
44(1)
Design Issues
44(2)
Moss Spheres
46(4)
Typical Dimensions and Capacity
47(1)
Insulation and Tank Materials
48(1)
Pressure and Vacuum Relief
48(1)
Design Issues
48(2)
Risk Analysis and Risk Reduction
50(24)
Background
51(1)
Risk Analysis Process
52(5)
Hazard Identification
54(3)
Frequency: Data Sources and Analysis
57(1)
Generic Data Approach
57(1)
Frequency: Predictive Methods
58(6)
FTA
59(1)
Event Tree Analysis
60(4)
Consequence Modeling
64(1)
Ignition Probability
64(4)
Risk Results
68(2)
Risk Presentation
68(2)
Risk Decision Making
70(1)
Special Issues---Terrorism
70(1)
Risk Reduction and Mitigation Measures for LNG
71(3)
LNG Discharge on Water
74(30)
Above Water Breaches at Sea
76(5)
Ship-to-Ship Collisions
76(4)
Weapons Attack
80(1)
At Waterline Breaches at Sea
81(3)
Grounding or Collision
81(1)
Explosive-Laden Boat Attack
81(3)
Below Waterline Breaches at Sea
84(1)
Discharges from Ship's Pipework
85(1)
Cascading Failures at Sea
86(2)
Sloshing Forces
86(1)
Explosion in Hull Chambers
87(1)
RPT in Hull Chambers
87(1)
Cryogenic Temperature Stresses on Decks and Hull
87(1)
Cascading Events Caused by Fire
88(1)
Initial Discharge Rate
88(2)
Time-Dependent Discharge (Blowdown)
90(13)
Blowdown for Type 2 Breach (at Waterline)
90(2)
Blowdown for Type 1 Breach (above Waterline)
92(2)
Blowdown of Type 3 Breach (Underwater Level)
94(9)
Vacuum Breaking and Glug-Glug Effects
103(1)
Risk Analysis for Onshore Terminals and Transport
104(30)
Typical Basis for LNG Receiving Terminal
104(1)
Features of LNG Receiving Terminals
105(5)
Standards for Receiving Terminal Design
110(2)
U.S. Guidelines and Regulations for Receiving Terminals
112(7)
LNG Transport Administered by the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the U.S. Coast Guard
113(1)
LNG Terminal Permitting by Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
113(1)
Pool Fire Radiation Exclusion Zone
114(2)
Vapor Dispersion Exclusion Zone
116(3)
European Regulations for LNG Receiving Terminals
119(2)
Features of EN 1473
119(1)
Comparison of Prescriptive and Risk-Based Approaches
120(1)
Empirical Formula for Required Land Area of Terminal
121(2)
Leak in Loading Arm or in Storage Tank
123(6)
Modeling Effects of Substrate on Evaporation Rate
124(2)
Vapor Hold-Up Effect on Dispersion Zone Calculation
126(3)
Rollover
129(3)
LNG Land Transport Risk
132(1)
Offshore LNG Terminals
132(2)
LNG Pool Modeling
134(41)
Flashing and Droplet Evaporation in Jet Flow
135(1)
Pool Spread and Evaporation Modeling
136(23)
Spread Rate on Smooth Surface
138(6)
Pool Spread on Land
144(1)
Pool Evaporation on Smooth Water Surface, Test Data
144(1)
Pool Evaporation, Heat Transfer Regimes
145(5)
Heat Conduction on Shallow Water with Ice Formation
150(1)
Composition Changes with Evaporation
151(2)
Type 1 Breach---LNG Penetration into Water, Turbulent Heat Transfer
153(3)
Time-Dependent Pool Spread
156(3)
Rapid Phase Transition Explosions
159(7)
Historical Experience with LNG RPTs
160(1)
Similar Phenomena More Thoroughly Investigated
161(1)
Explosion Energy of an RPT
162(1)
Models of RPT Explosions
162(3)
Superheat Limits
165(1)
TNT Equivalence
166(1)
Aerosol Drop Size
166(3)
Drop Size Distribution
167(1)
Droplet Breakup Mechanisms
168(1)
Heat Balance Terms to LNG Pool
169(3)
Heat Conduction from Solid Substrate
169(1)
Heat Convection from Wind
170(1)
Radiation to/from Pool
170(1)
Evaporative Cooling on Water
171(1)
Bubble Flow in Vaporizing LNG
171(1)
Nomenclature
172(3)
Vapor Cloud Dispersion Modeling
175(47)
Atmospheric Transport Processes
175(6)
Wind Speed, Stability, and Surface Roughness
176(5)
Effect of Obstructions
181(1)
Model Types
181(7)
Gaussian Models
182(1)
Integral or Similarity Models
183(2)
CFD
185(3)
LNG Dispersion Test Series
188(5)
Factors Affecting Plume Length
193(11)
Heavy Gas Properties Increase Hazard Area
193(4)
Models Predict Average Conditions of Fluctuating Plume
197(4)
Wind Speed for Longest Plume
201(1)
LNG Vapor Cloud Lift-Off Limits Hazardous Plume Length
202(1)
Scooping of Confined Vapors
202(2)
Effect of Wind, Currents, and Waves on LNG Plume
204(1)
Comparison of Dispersion Model Predictions
205(4)
Descriptions of Dispersion Test Series
209(3)
Matagorda Bay Tests
209(1)
Shell Jettison Tests
209(1)
Avocet, Burro, and Coyote Test Series
210(1)
Maplin Sands Test Series
210(1)
Falcon Test Series
211(1)
Vapor Intrusion Indoors
212(8)
Basic Response for Indoor Concentration Buildup
212(2)
Experimental Observations Show Low Indoor Concentrations
214(1)
Concentration Reduction by Plume Impinging on Buildings
214(1)
Models of Infiltration into Buildings
215(5)
Theoretical Basis for Suppression of Turbulence
220(2)
LNG Pool Fire Modeling
222(53)
Types of Fires from LNG Facilities
222(1)
The Challenge for Pool Fire Modeling
223(1)
Pool Fire Characteristics
223(7)
Fires are Low-Momentum Phenomena
223(2)
Fire Structure
225(3)
Simplifying Pool Fire Structure
228(2)
Summary of LNG Fire Experiments
230(1)
Burning Rate Data and Correlations From Fire Tests
230(7)
Consistency Checks between Evaporation Rate and Burning Rate
236(1)
Stopping Point for Pool Fire
236(1)
Point Source Fire Model
237(2)
Solid Flame Models: Flame Length Correlations
239(10)
Small-Scale Pool Fire Tests and Flame Length Correlations
240(5)
Medium-Scale Pool Fire Tests and Flame Length Correlations
245(3)
Large-Scale Pool Fire Tests and Flame Length Correlations
248(1)
Flame Tilt Correlations
249(3)
Flame Drag Near Pools
252(1)
Sep Correlations and Smoke Shielding
253(6)
SEP from Tests
253(1)
Smoke Shielding and Theoretical SEP Values
254(5)
Validation Comparison of a Three-Zone SEP Model
259(1)
Atmospheric Transmissivity
259(3)
Trench Fires
262(2)
View Factors
264(2)
CFD Modeling
266(2)
Comparison of Model Predictions
268(3)
Fire Engulfment of LNG Carrier
271(4)
Other LNG Hazards
275(43)
Fire and Explosion Scenarios
275(1)
Jet Fires
276(10)
Flash Fires
286(5)
BLEVEs, Fireballs
291(11)
BLEVEs and Applicability to LNG
292(2)
Applicability of BLEVEs to LNG Marine Vessels
294(3)
Fireballs from Released Vapor
297(5)
LNG Vapor Cloud Explosions
302(11)
Characteristics of Detonations and Deflagrations
303(3)
Fuel Reactivity Effects
306(2)
Modeling VCEs
308(3)
CFD Modeling of VCEs
311(2)
Asphyxiation and Cryogenic Hazard from LNG Spills
313(5)
Fire Effects
318(11)
Fire Radiation Effects on Individuals
318(6)
Injuries to People---Definition of Burn Degrees
318(1)
Measured Effect Levels from Radiation Exposure
319(3)
Thresholds of Injury on Thermal Dose Basis
322(2)
Radiation Dosage from Transient Events
324(1)
Effects of Thermal Radiation on Property
324(5)
Equipment Degradation by Thermal Radiation
324(1)
Thermal Weakening of Steel and Concrete
325(2)
Bursting Pressure Vessels, Rail Tank Cars
327(2)
Research Needs
329(12)
Uncertainties
329(1)
Recommendations of GAO Survey
330(3)
LNG Model Evaluation Protocols (MEPs)
333(2)
Special Topics
335(4)
LNG Pool Spill and Fire Tests
335(2)
Limitation of Boussinesq Approximation
337(1)
LNG Plumes Not Modeled Well for Calm Winds
337(1)
The Use of 1/2 LFL as an End Point
338(1)
Conclusions
339(2)
References 341(48)
Index 389
JOHN L. WOODWARD, PhD, is Senior Principal Consultant in the Process Safety Division of Baker Engineering and Risk Consultants, Inc. in San Antonio, Texas. He has been actively involved in consequence modeling for both the DNV PHAST and BakerRisk SafeSite codes for many years. He was invited by the GAO (Government Accountability Office) as part of a team of LNG experts to review LNG safety issues. ROBIN M. PITBLADO, PhD, is Director for SHE Risk Management for Det Norske Veritas and is based in Houston, Texas. He has been active in consequence modeling, risk assessment and major accident investigation for over thirty years and was also a member of the GAO Panel of LNG Experts.