| Preface |
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xv | |
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LNG Properties and Overview of Hazards |
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1 | (19) |
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2 | (2) |
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Hazards of LNG with Respect to Public Risk |
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4 | (6) |
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Flash Fire, Pool Fire, or Jet Fire |
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7 | (1) |
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Outdoor Vapor Cloud Explosions |
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8 | (1) |
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Enclosed Vapor Cloud Explosions |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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Risk Analysis Requires Adequate Modeling |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (2) |
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Regulations in Siting Onshore LNG Import Terminals |
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13 | (3) |
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U.S. Marine LNG Risk and Security Regulation |
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13 | (1) |
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U.S. Land-Based LNG Risk and Security Regulation |
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14 | (1) |
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European and International Regulations |
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15 | (1) |
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Regulation for Siting Offshore LNG Import Terminals |
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16 | (1) |
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Controversial Claims of LNG Opponents |
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16 | (4) |
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LNG Incidents and Marine History |
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20 | (17) |
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20 | (2) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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Designs and Issues---First Commercial LNG Ships |
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22 | (5) |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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LNG Carriers for the Asian Trade |
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26 | (1) |
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Current State of LNG Tankers |
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27 | (1) |
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27 | (5) |
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27 | (1) |
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27 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
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Revival of LNG with Worldwide Supply-Demand Pinch of Petroleum |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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30 | (2) |
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32 | (3) |
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Summary of LNG History and Relevant Technical Developments |
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35 | (2) |
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37 | (13) |
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39 | (1) |
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39 | (7) |
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Tank Design and Insulation |
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39 | (2) |
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41 | (1) |
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Tank Materials and Insulation |
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42 | (2) |
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Pressure and Vacuum Relief |
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44 | (1) |
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44 | (2) |
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46 | (4) |
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Typical Dimensions and Capacity |
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47 | (1) |
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Insulation and Tank Materials |
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48 | (1) |
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Pressure and Vacuum Relief |
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48 | (1) |
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48 | (2) |
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Risk Analysis and Risk Reduction |
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50 | (24) |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (5) |
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54 | (3) |
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Frequency: Data Sources and Analysis |
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57 | (1) |
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57 | (1) |
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Frequency: Predictive Methods |
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58 | (6) |
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59 | (1) |
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60 | (4) |
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64 | (1) |
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64 | (4) |
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68 | (2) |
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68 | (2) |
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70 | (1) |
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Special Issues---Terrorism |
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70 | (1) |
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Risk Reduction and Mitigation Measures for LNG |
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71 | (3) |
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74 | (30) |
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Above Water Breaches at Sea |
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76 | (5) |
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76 | (4) |
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80 | (1) |
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At Waterline Breaches at Sea |
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81 | (3) |
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81 | (1) |
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Explosive-Laden Boat Attack |
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81 | (3) |
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Below Waterline Breaches at Sea |
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84 | (1) |
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Discharges from Ship's Pipework |
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85 | (1) |
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Cascading Failures at Sea |
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86 | (2) |
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86 | (1) |
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Explosion in Hull Chambers |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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Cryogenic Temperature Stresses on Decks and Hull |
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87 | (1) |
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Cascading Events Caused by Fire |
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88 | (1) |
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88 | (2) |
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Time-Dependent Discharge (Blowdown) |
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90 | (13) |
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Blowdown for Type 2 Breach (at Waterline) |
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90 | (2) |
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Blowdown for Type 1 Breach (above Waterline) |
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92 | (2) |
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Blowdown of Type 3 Breach (Underwater Level) |
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94 | (9) |
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Vacuum Breaking and Glug-Glug Effects |
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103 | (1) |
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Risk Analysis for Onshore Terminals and Transport |
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104 | (30) |
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Typical Basis for LNG Receiving Terminal |
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104 | (1) |
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Features of LNG Receiving Terminals |
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105 | (5) |
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Standards for Receiving Terminal Design |
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110 | (2) |
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U.S. Guidelines and Regulations for Receiving Terminals |
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112 | (7) |
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LNG Transport Administered by the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the U.S. Coast Guard |
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113 | (1) |
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LNG Terminal Permitting by Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) |
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113 | (1) |
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Pool Fire Radiation Exclusion Zone |
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114 | (2) |
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Vapor Dispersion Exclusion Zone |
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116 | (3) |
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European Regulations for LNG Receiving Terminals |
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119 | (2) |
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119 | (1) |
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Comparison of Prescriptive and Risk-Based Approaches |
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120 | (1) |
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Empirical Formula for Required Land Area of Terminal |
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121 | (2) |
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Leak in Loading Arm or in Storage Tank |
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123 | (6) |
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Modeling Effects of Substrate on Evaporation Rate |
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124 | (2) |
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Vapor Hold-Up Effect on Dispersion Zone Calculation |
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126 | (3) |
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129 | (3) |
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132 | (1) |
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132 | (2) |
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134 | (41) |
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Flashing and Droplet Evaporation in Jet Flow |
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135 | (1) |
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Pool Spread and Evaporation Modeling |
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136 | (23) |
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Spread Rate on Smooth Surface |
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138 | (6) |
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144 | (1) |
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Pool Evaporation on Smooth Water Surface, Test Data |
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144 | (1) |
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Pool Evaporation, Heat Transfer Regimes |
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145 | (5) |
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Heat Conduction on Shallow Water with Ice Formation |
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150 | (1) |
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Composition Changes with Evaporation |
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151 | (2) |
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Type 1 Breach---LNG Penetration into Water, Turbulent Heat Transfer |
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153 | (3) |
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Time-Dependent Pool Spread |
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156 | (3) |
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Rapid Phase Transition Explosions |
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159 | (7) |
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Historical Experience with LNG RPTs |
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160 | (1) |
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Similar Phenomena More Thoroughly Investigated |
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161 | (1) |
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Explosion Energy of an RPT |
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162 | (1) |
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162 | (3) |
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165 | (1) |
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166 | (1) |
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166 | (3) |
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167 | (1) |
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Droplet Breakup Mechanisms |
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168 | (1) |
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Heat Balance Terms to LNG Pool |
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169 | (3) |
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Heat Conduction from Solid Substrate |
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169 | (1) |
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Heat Convection from Wind |
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170 | (1) |
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170 | (1) |
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Evaporative Cooling on Water |
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171 | (1) |
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Bubble Flow in Vaporizing LNG |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (3) |
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Vapor Cloud Dispersion Modeling |
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175 | (47) |
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Atmospheric Transport Processes |
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175 | (6) |
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Wind Speed, Stability, and Surface Roughness |
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176 | (5) |
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181 | (1) |
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181 | (7) |
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182 | (1) |
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Integral or Similarity Models |
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183 | (2) |
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185 | (3) |
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LNG Dispersion Test Series |
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188 | (5) |
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Factors Affecting Plume Length |
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193 | (11) |
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Heavy Gas Properties Increase Hazard Area |
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193 | (4) |
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Models Predict Average Conditions of Fluctuating Plume |
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197 | (4) |
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Wind Speed for Longest Plume |
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201 | (1) |
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LNG Vapor Cloud Lift-Off Limits Hazardous Plume Length |
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202 | (1) |
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Scooping of Confined Vapors |
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202 | (2) |
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Effect of Wind, Currents, and Waves on LNG Plume |
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204 | (1) |
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Comparison of Dispersion Model Predictions |
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205 | (4) |
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Descriptions of Dispersion Test Series |
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209 | (3) |
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209 | (1) |
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209 | (1) |
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Avocet, Burro, and Coyote Test Series |
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210 | (1) |
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210 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (8) |
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Basic Response for Indoor Concentration Buildup |
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212 | (2) |
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Experimental Observations Show Low Indoor Concentrations |
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214 | (1) |
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Concentration Reduction by Plume Impinging on Buildings |
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214 | (1) |
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Models of Infiltration into Buildings |
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215 | (5) |
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Theoretical Basis for Suppression of Turbulence |
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220 | (2) |
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222 | (53) |
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Types of Fires from LNG Facilities |
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222 | (1) |
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The Challenge for Pool Fire Modeling |
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223 | (1) |
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Pool Fire Characteristics |
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223 | (7) |
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Fires are Low-Momentum Phenomena |
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223 | (2) |
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225 | (3) |
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Simplifying Pool Fire Structure |
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228 | (2) |
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Summary of LNG Fire Experiments |
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230 | (1) |
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Burning Rate Data and Correlations From Fire Tests |
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230 | (7) |
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Consistency Checks between Evaporation Rate and Burning Rate |
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236 | (1) |
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Stopping Point for Pool Fire |
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236 | (1) |
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237 | (2) |
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Solid Flame Models: Flame Length Correlations |
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239 | (10) |
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Small-Scale Pool Fire Tests and Flame Length Correlations |
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240 | (5) |
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Medium-Scale Pool Fire Tests and Flame Length Correlations |
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245 | (3) |
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Large-Scale Pool Fire Tests and Flame Length Correlations |
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248 | (1) |
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249 | (3) |
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252 | (1) |
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Sep Correlations and Smoke Shielding |
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253 | (6) |
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253 | (1) |
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Smoke Shielding and Theoretical SEP Values |
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254 | (5) |
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Validation Comparison of a Three-Zone SEP Model |
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259 | (1) |
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Atmospheric Transmissivity |
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259 | (3) |
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262 | (2) |
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264 | (2) |
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266 | (2) |
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Comparison of Model Predictions |
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268 | (3) |
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Fire Engulfment of LNG Carrier |
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271 | (4) |
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275 | (43) |
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Fire and Explosion Scenarios |
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275 | (1) |
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276 | (10) |
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286 | (5) |
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291 | (11) |
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BLEVEs and Applicability to LNG |
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292 | (2) |
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Applicability of BLEVEs to LNG Marine Vessels |
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294 | (3) |
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Fireballs from Released Vapor |
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297 | (5) |
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LNG Vapor Cloud Explosions |
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302 | (11) |
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Characteristics of Detonations and Deflagrations |
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303 | (3) |
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306 | (2) |
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308 | (3) |
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311 | (2) |
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Asphyxiation and Cryogenic Hazard from LNG Spills |
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313 | (5) |
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318 | (11) |
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Fire Radiation Effects on Individuals |
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318 | (6) |
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Injuries to People---Definition of Burn Degrees |
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318 | (1) |
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Measured Effect Levels from Radiation Exposure |
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319 | (3) |
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Thresholds of Injury on Thermal Dose Basis |
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322 | (2) |
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Radiation Dosage from Transient Events |
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324 | (1) |
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Effects of Thermal Radiation on Property |
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324 | (5) |
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Equipment Degradation by Thermal Radiation |
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324 | (1) |
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Thermal Weakening of Steel and Concrete |
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325 | (2) |
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Bursting Pressure Vessels, Rail Tank Cars |
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327 | (2) |
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329 | (12) |
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329 | (1) |
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Recommendations of GAO Survey |
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330 | (3) |
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LNG Model Evaluation Protocols (MEPs) |
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333 | (2) |
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335 | (4) |
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LNG Pool Spill and Fire Tests |
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335 | (2) |
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Limitation of Boussinesq Approximation |
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337 | (1) |
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LNG Plumes Not Modeled Well for Calm Winds |
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337 | (1) |
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The Use of 1/2 LFL as an End Point |
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338 | (1) |
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339 | (2) |
| References |
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341 | (48) |
| Index |
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389 | |