| Preface |
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xi | |
| Acknowledgements |
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xiii | |
| Authors |
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xv | |
| Abbreviations |
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xvii | |
| Introduction |
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xix | |
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1 Introduction to Chemical and Nanofluids-Induced Oil Recovery |
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1 | (28) |
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1.1 Importance of Crude Oil |
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1 | (1) |
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1.2 Crude Oil - Demand and Supply |
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1 | (2) |
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1.3 Enhanced and Improved Oil Recovery |
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3 | (2) |
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1.3.1 Thermal-Enhanced Oil Recovery |
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4 | (1) |
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1.3.2 Gas-Enhanced Oil Recovery |
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5 | (1) |
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1.3.3 Chemical-Enhanced Oil Recovery |
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5 | (1) |
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1.4 Chemical-Enhanced Oil Recovery Mechanisms |
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5 | (4) |
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6 | (1) |
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1.4.2 Interfacial Tension (IFT) |
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6 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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1.4.4 Displacement Efficiency |
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8 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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1.4.6 Wettability Alteration |
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9 | (1) |
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1.5 Selection Criteria for EOR and Chemical EOR Processes |
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9 | (3) |
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1.6 Overview of Chemical and Chemical-Nanofluid EOR |
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12 | (8) |
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1.7 Complexities and Literature Lacuna for Chemical and Chemical-Nanofluid EOR |
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20 | (9) |
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22 | (7) |
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2 Alkali Flooding - Mechanisms Investigation |
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29 | (16) |
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2.1 Introduction to Alkali Flooding |
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29 | (1) |
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2.2 IFT between Crude Oil and Alkaline Solution |
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30 | (3) |
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2.3 Alkali Flooding in Sandpack |
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33 | (5) |
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2.3.1 Alkali Concentration on Oil Recovery |
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33 | (1) |
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2.3.2 Extent of Emulsification and Size Distribution of Droplets |
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34 | (1) |
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2.3.3 Slug Size on Residual Oil Recovery |
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35 | (1) |
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2.3.4 Injection Pattern on Oil Recovery |
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36 | (1) |
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2.3.5 Alkali Injection Rate for Oil Recovery |
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37 | (1) |
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2.4 Neutralization and Saponification of Crude Oil |
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38 | (1) |
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2.5 Wettability Alteration of Reservoir Rock |
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38 | (1) |
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2.6 Overall Factors Deciding Oil Recovery |
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39 | (1) |
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40 | (5) |
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41 | (4) |
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3 Alkali and Surfactant Flooding |
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45 | (20) |
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3.1 Introduction to Alkali-Surfactant Flooding |
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45 | (2) |
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3.2 Selection of Alkali Based on IFT |
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47 | (2) |
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3.2.1 IFT between Crude Oil and Different Alkalis |
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47 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Temperature and Salinity Effect on Alkali-Crude IFT |
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48 | (1) |
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3.3 Selection of Surfactants Based on IFT |
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49 | (4) |
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3.3.1 IFT between Crude Oil and Different Surfactants |
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49 | (2) |
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3.3.2 Synergy of Emulsification and IFT |
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51 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Thermal Stability of Surfactants |
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52 | (1) |
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3.4 Formulation of Optimal Surfactant Composition |
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53 | (3) |
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3.4.1 Dynamic IFT of Combined Surfactants |
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53 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Influence of Temperature and Salinity on the Optimum Surfactant Composition |
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54 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Adsorption Behaviour of Optimum Surfactant Composition |
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55 | (1) |
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3.5 IFT between Alkali-Surfactant Combinations |
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56 | (1) |
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3.6 Wettability Alteration with Different Chemicals |
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57 | (1) |
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3.7 Berea Core Flooding for Oil Recovery |
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58 | (2) |
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60 | (5) |
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61 | (4) |
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4 Surfactant Adsorption Characteristics on Reservoir Rock |
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65 | (18) |
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65 | (2) |
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4.2 Characterization of Rock Samples |
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67 | (1) |
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4.3 Interfacial Tension between Crude Oil and Surfactant |
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67 | (2) |
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4.3.1 IFT Behaviour Using Different Surfactants |
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67 | (1) |
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4.3.2 IFT Behaviour with Formation Water |
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68 | (1) |
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4.4 Thermal Stability of Surfactants |
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69 | (2) |
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4.4.1 IFT of Aged and Non-Aged Surfactant Samples |
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70 | (1) |
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71 | (2) |
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4.5.1 Adsorption Kinetic Models |
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72 | (1) |
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4.6 Influence of Salinity and Temperature on Adsorption Capacity |
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73 | (2) |
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4.7 Adsorption Thermodynamic Parameters |
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75 | (1) |
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4.8 Role of Rock Minerals on Adsorption Quantity |
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75 | (2) |
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77 | (6) |
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77 | (6) |
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5 Nanofluid Flooding for Oil Recovery |
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83 | (22) |
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5.1 Introduction to Nanofluid Flooding |
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83 | (1) |
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5.2 Methods to Evaluate Nanofluid Stability |
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84 | (3) |
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5.3 Influence of Nanofluid on Rheological Properties |
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87 | (1) |
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5.4 Influence of Nanofluid on Interfacial Tension |
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87 | (2) |
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5.5 Effect of Nanofluid on Emulsion Properties |
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89 | (3) |
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5.5.1 Nanofluid for Emulsion Stability |
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89 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Nanofluid for Creaming Index |
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90 | (1) |
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5.5.3 Nanofluid for Emulsion Viscosity |
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91 | (1) |
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5.6 Influence of Nanofluid on Wettability Alteration |
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92 | (2) |
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5.7 Nanofluid Flooding for Oil Recovery |
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94 | (1) |
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5.8 Identification of Nanoparticles in Emulsion and Rock Surfaces |
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95 | (1) |
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5.9 Nanofluid Field Projects and Technical Challenges |
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95 | (2) |
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97 | (8) |
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98 | (7) |
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6 Problems and Challenges in Chemical EOR |
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105 | (20) |
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105 | (1) |
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6.2 Limitations of Chemical EOR |
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105 | (5) |
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6.2.1 Precipitation and Scaling |
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106 | (1) |
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107 | (1) |
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6.2.3 Produced Emulsion Treatment |
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107 | (1) |
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6.2.4 Chemical Separation |
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108 | (1) |
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6.2.5 Water Disposal Treatment and Facility Problems |
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108 | (1) |
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6.2.6 Challenges in Offshore Oil Field |
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109 | (1) |
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109 | (1) |
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6.3 Case Studies on Challenges of Chemical EOR |
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110 | (1) |
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6.4 Technical Solutions for Chemical EOR |
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111 | (3) |
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6.5 Chemical EOR Laboratory and Pilot-Scale Studies |
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114 | (11) |
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6.5.1 ASP Flooding in China |
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115 | (2) |
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6.5.2 ASP Flooding in the United States |
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117 | (1) |
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6.5.3 ASP Flooding in Canada |
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117 | (1) |
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6.5.4 ASP Flooding in India |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (7) |
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7 Application of Nanotechnology in Unconventional Reservoirs |
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125 | (12) |
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125 | (2) |
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7.2 Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid |
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127 | (2) |
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7.3 Limitations of Hydraulic Fracturing Fluid |
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129 | (1) |
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7.4 Nanotechnology in Unconventional Reservoirs |
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130 | (7) |
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7.4.1 Nanoparticles for Hydraulic Fracturing |
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130 | (1) |
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7.4.1.1 Nanoparticles in a Polymer-Based Fracturing Fluid |
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130 | (2) |
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7.4.1.2 Nanoparticles in a Surfactant-Based Fracturing Fluid |
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132 | (1) |
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7.4.1.3 Nanoparticles in a Foam-Based Fracturing Fluid |
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133 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Nanoparticles Impact on a Proppant |
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134 | (1) |
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7.4.3 Nanoparticles as a Fluid Loss Control Agent |
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135 | (1) |
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7.4.4 Nanoparticles in Sensors |
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135 | (1) |
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7.4.5 Nanoparticles in Unconventional Gas Reservoirs |
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136 | (1) |
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7.5 Field Applications and Challenges in Unconventional Reservoirs |
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137 | (1) |
| References |
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137 | (12) |
| Index |
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149 | |