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E-raamat: The Hague Child Abduction Convention: A Critical Analysis [Hart e-raamatud]

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International child abduction is one of the most emotionally charged and fascinating areas of family law practice. The 1980 Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction was the response of the international community to the increase in the phenomenon of parental child abduction. However, behind the widely acclaimed success of this Convention - which has now been ratified by more than 90 states - lie personal tragedies, academic controversy and diplomatic tensions.

The continuing steady flow of case-law from the various Member States has resulted in the emergence of different approaches to the interpretation of key concepts in the Convention. In addition, over the years other global and regional legal instruments and the recommendations of the Special Commissions have had an impact on the implementation of the Convention.

This book brings together all these strands and provides an up-to-date, clear and highly readable discussion of the international operation of the Abduction Convention together with in-depth critical academic analysis in light of the objectives of the Convention and other relevant legal norms, such as the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. Throughout the book, examples are brought from case law in many jurisdictions and reference is made to relevant legal and social science literature and empirical research.

Over the past decade, increasing focus has been placed on what might be seen as procedural issues, such as separate representation for children, undertakings, judicial liaison and mediation. The book analyses the significance of these developments and the extent to which they can help resolve the continuing tension between some of the objectives of the Convention and the interests of individual children.

This book will be essential reading for judges, practitioners, researchers, students, policy-makers and others who are seeking a critical and informed analysis of the latest developments in international abduction law and practice.















From the Foreword by Brenda Hale, Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom 'This book is, as far as I am aware, the first scholarly monograph to study the interpretation and application of the Convention across the whole legal space which it occupies and to critically assess these in light of the object and purposes of the Convention and other relevant legal norms. Cases are drawn from many jurisdictions to discuss how different countries interpret the Convention and links are made with relevant statistical, social and psychological research in a thoughtful discussion of the significance of such material both to judicial decision-making and to policy developmenta study which deserves to be read by anyone with an interest in the modern phenomenon of international child abduction, whether judge, practitioner, policy-maker, parent, researcher or scholar. There is plenty for us all to think about.'
Series Editors' Preface vii
Foreword xi
Acknowledgements xiii
Table of Cases
xxiii
Table of Legislation
xlv
Table of Conventions, Treaties, etc
li
Introduction 1(4)
Part I Overview
5(86)
1 The Birth of the Abduction Convention and its Inter-Relationship with Other Legal Instruments
7(28)
I The Birth of the Abduction Convention
7(7)
A Background
7(2)
B The Structure of the Abduction Convention
9(3)
C Ratification and Accessions
12(2)
II Inter-Relationship with Other Legal Instruments
14(21)
A National Legislation
14(3)
B The European Custody Convention
17(2)
C Brussels II bis Regulation
19(6)
D European Convention on Human Rights
25(4)
E The 1996 Hague Child Protection Convention
29(4)
F United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989
33(2)
2 The Operation of the Abduction Convention
35(19)
I Sources of Information and Statistics
35(3)
A Introduction
35(1)
B The Empirical Studies
35(1)
C Statistics
36(2)
II Institutions and other Actors Involved in the Operation of the Convention
38(5)
A Central Authorities
38(1)
B Judicial and Law Enforcement Authorities
39(1)
C Lawyers
39(1)
D The Permanent Bureau
40(3)
III The Abduction Convention Process
43(7)
A The Application
43(1)
B Locating the Child
43(1)
C Protecting the Child
44(1)
D Voluntary Return
44(1)
E Commencing Proceedings
45(1)
F Conduct of the Proceedings
46(1)
G Ensuring Safe Return
46(1)
H Enforcement of Return Orders
47(3)
IV After Return
50(4)
A Obtaining Information
50(1)
B The Surveys
51(3)
3 Inter-Disciplinary Aspects of International Child Abduction
54(17)
I Sociological Aspects
54(7)
A Introduction
54(1)
B Which Parents Abduct and Why
55(3)
C Gender Issues
58(3)
II Psychological Aspects of Abduction
61(10)
A Introduction
61(2)
B The Impact of Moving
63(1)
C The Impact of Abduction
64(1)
D The Impact of a Move Away from a Primary Carer
65(2)
E The Impact of a Move Away from a Non-Primary Carer
67(2)
F Parental Alienation
69(2)
4 International Relocation and its Inter-Relationship with Child Abduction
71(20)
I Introduction
71(1)
II Relocation Law
72(12)
A The Different Approaches
72(5)
B Empirical Evidence
77(2)
C Scholarly Analysis
79(3)
D International Harmonisation Initiatives
82(2)
III Inter-Relationship between Child Abduction and Relocation
84(7)
A The Implications of Abduction Law for Relocation Law
84(2)
B The Implications of Relocation Law and Research for Abduction Law
86(5)
Part II Parameters for Analysis
91(48)
5 Parameters Relating to Text and Objectives
93(15)
I Introduction
93(1)
II Explanation of the Parameters
94(14)
A Internal Coherence
94(1)
B Consistency with the Intention of the Drafters
94(2)
C Promotion of the Objectives of the Convention
96(10)
D Compatibility with the Summary Nature of Convention Proceedings
106(2)
6 Consistency with General Legal Doctrines
108(31)
I Introduction
108(1)
II Rights and Interests of Children
109(12)
A Children's Rights and the Abduction Convention
109(2)
B The Best Interests of the Child and Article 3 of the CRC
111(2)
C The Child's Participation Rights and Article 12 of the CRC
113(5)
D The Child's Right to Protection and to Survival and Development
118(1)
E The Child's Right to Contact with his Parents
118(3)
F The Child's Right to Identity
121(1)
III Rights of Parents
121(5)
A Introduction
121(1)
B The Status of Parental Rights
122(1)
C The Scope of Parental Rights
123(1)
D Conflicts between Children's Rights and Parental Rights
124(2)
IV Private International Law Principles
126(13)
A The Abduction Convention and Private International Law
126(1)
B Jurisdiction Rules
127(1)
C Choice of Law Rules
128(1)
D Rules for Recognition of Foreign Judgments
129(3)
E Comity of Nations
132(4)
V Certainty versus Flexibility
136(3)
Part III Conditions for Application of Mandatory Return Mechanism
139(84)
7 Wrongful Removal or Retention
141(34)
I Introduction
141(1)
II Removal or Retention
142(4)
A Relationship between the Concepts
142(1)
B Identifying the Date of the Wrongful Retention
142(2)
C Analysis in Relation to the Concept of Retention
144(2)
III Rights of Custody
146(11)
A Introduction
146(1)
B Local Law versus Autonomous Definition
147(1)
C Ne Exeat Rights
148(3)
D Unmarried Fathers
151(3)
E Article 15 Declarations
154(2)
F Actual Exercise of Custody Rights
156(1)
IV Analysis in Relation to Breach and Exercise of Custody Rights
157(18)
A Internal Coherence
157(2)
B Intention of the Drafters
159(2)
C Promotion of the Objectives of the Convention
161(4)
D Compatibility with the Summary Nature of Convention Proceedings
165(1)
E Consistency with Rights and Interests of Children
166(1)
F Consistency with Rights of the Parents
167(2)
G Consistency with Private International Law Principles
169(4)
H Certainty versus Flexibility
173(1)
V Conclusions
173(2)
8 Habitual Residence
175(48)
I Introduction
175(5)
A Structure of the
Chapter
175(1)
B Origin of the Concept of Habitual Residence
175(1)
C Use of Habitual Residence in Relation to Children
176(2)
D Does a Person have a Single Habitual Residence at all Times?
178(1)
E Nature of the Determination of Habitual Residence
179(1)
II Role of Habitual Residence in the Abduction Convention
180(6)
A In Determining the Applicability of the Convention
180(2)
B In Determining Whether the Removal or Retention was Wrongful
182(1)
C As the Place to Where the Child is Returned
182(4)
III The Different Models
186(9)
A The Parental Intention Model
186(3)
B The Independent/Child-Centred Model
189(3)
C The Combined/Hybrid Model
192(3)
IV Illustrating the Different Models
195(28)
A Permanent Relocations
195(2)
B Fixed Term Relocations
197(1)
C Relocations for an Indefinite Period
198(2)
D Shuttle Custody Arrangements
200(1)
E Newborn Child
201(2)
F Re-Abduction
203(1)
V Analysis
204(1)
A Internal Coherence
204(2)
B Consistency with the Intention of the Drafters
206(1)
C Promotion of the Objectives of the Convention
207(4)
D Compatibility with the Summary Nature of Convention Proceedings
211(1)
E Consistency with Rights and Interests of Children
212(1)
F Consistency with Rights of the Parents
213(2)
G Consistency with Matrimonial Law
215(1)
H Consistency with Contract Law
216(2)
I Certainty versus Flexibility
218(2)
VI Conclusions
220(3)
Part IV Defences to Mandatory Return
223(148)
9 Article 12(2)
225(20)
I Introduction
225(1)
II The Case Law
226(10)
A Expiration of the 12-Month Period
226(2)
B The Child is Settled in his New Environment
228(5)
C Discretion to Order Return
233(3)
III Analysis
236(8)
A Internal Coherence
236(1)
B Consistency with the Intention of the Drafters
237(1)
C Promotion of the Objectives of the Convention
237(5)
D Compatibility with the Summary Nature of Convention Proceedings
242(1)
E Consistency with Rights and Interests of Children
242(1)
F Consistency with Private International Law Principles
243(1)
G Certainty versus Flexibility
243(1)
IV Conclusions
244(1)
10 Consent and Acquiescence
245(25)
I Introduction
245(2)
II Normative Framework
247(5)
A Content of Acquiescence or Consent
247(1)
B Subjective or Objective Test
248(1)
C Ignorance of Rights
249(1)
D Need for Reliance
250(1)
E Irrevocability
251(1)
III Specific Situations
252(5)
A Vitiating Factors
252(1)
B Statements Made During Negotiations
252(1)
C Advance Consent
253(1)
D Statements Made in Immediate Aftermath of the Removal or Retention
254(1)
E Pursuance of Other Remedies
255(1)
F Actions for the Benefit of the Children
255(1)
G Inaction
256(1)
H Acquiescence Following Initiation of Proceedings
256(1)
IV Exercise of Discretion
257(13)
A The Nature of the Discretion
257(1)
B The Relevant Factors
258(3)
V Analysis
261(1)
A Internal Coherence
261(1)
B Consistency with the Intention of the Drafters
262(1)
C Promotion of the Objectives of the Convention
263(2)
D Compatibility with the Summary Nature of Convention Proceedings
265(1)
E Consistency with Rights and Interests of Children
265(1)
F Consistency with Principles of Private International Law
266(1)
G Consistency with Contract Law
267(1)
H Certainty versus Flexibility
268(1)
VI Conclusions
268(2)
11 Grave Risk of Harm
270(47)
I Introduction
270(3)
A The Dilemma
270(1)
B Scope of the Investigation
271(2)
II Interpretation and Application of the Grave Risk Defence
273(16)
A General
273(4)
B Specific Situations
277(12)
III Protective Measures
289(9)
A Introduction
289(2)
B Undertakings
291(3)
C Ensuring Enforceability of Undertakings/Conditions
294(2)
D Judicial Liaison
296(2)
IV Analysis
298(19)
A Internal Coherence
298(2)
B Consistency with the Intention of the Drafters
300(1)
C Promotion of the Objectives of the Convention
301(4)
D Compatibility with the Summary Nature of Convention Proceedings
305(1)
E Consistency with Rights and Interests of Children
306(5)
F Consistency with Rights of the Parents
311(1)
G Consistency with Private International Law Principles
312(2)
H Consistency with Domestic Abuse Policy
314(1)
I Certainty versus Flexibility
314(1)
V Conclusions
315(2)
12 Child's Objection
317(37)
I Introduction
317(6)
A The Dilemma
317(2)
B The Scope of the Court's Discretion
319(4)
II Interpretation and Application of Article 13(2)
323(20)
A Age and Maturity
323(4)
B The Child's Objections
327(9)
C Considerations Relevant to the Court's Exercise of its Discretion
336(7)
III Analysis
343(8)
A Internal Coherence
343(1)
B Consistency with the Intention of the Drafters
344(1)
C Promotion of the Objectives of the Convention
345(3)
D Compatibility with the Summary Nature of Proceedings
348(1)
E Consistency with Rights and Interests of Children
348(1)
F Consistency with Private International Law Principles
349(1)
G Certainty versus Flexibility
349(2)
IV Conclusions
351(3)
13 Violation of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms
354(17)
I Introduction
354(1)
II The Case Law
355(6)
A Claims Based on Inconsistency with the Best Interests of the Child
355(3)
B Claims Based on Lack of Due Process in the Requesting State
358(2)
C Claims Based on Right to Freedom of Movement
360(1)
III Analysis
361(8)
A Internal Coherence
361(1)
B Consistency with the Intention of the Drafters
362(1)
C Promotion of the Objectives of the Convention
363(2)
D Compatibility with the Summary Nature of Convention Proceedings
365(1)
E Consistency with Rights and Interests of Children
365(1)
F Consistency with Rights of the Parents
366(2)
G Consistency with Private International Law Principles
368(1)
H Certainty versus Flexibility
368(1)
IV Conclusions
369(2)
Part V The Voice of the Child
371(36)
14 Ascertaining the Child's Views
373(16)
I Requirement to Ascertain the Child's Views
373(2)
II Method of Ascertaining the Child's Views in Abduction Convention Cases
375(5)
A Introduction
375(1)
B Specific Jurisdictions
376(4)
III Analysis
380(7)
A Arguments in Favour of Judges Hearing Children Directly
380(4)
B Arguments against Judges Hearing Children Directly
384(2)
C Making Participation Meaningful
386(1)
IV Conclusions
387(2)
15 Status of the Child in Abduction Convention Proceedings
389(18)
I Introduction
389(2)
II The Child's Right to Separate Representation
391(5)
A The Source of the Right
391(1)
B The Scope of the Right
392(4)
III Separate Representation in Abduction Convention Cases
396(7)
A The Arguments Against
396(3)
B The Arguments in Favour
399(4)
IV Application by the Child
403(4)
A The Legal Provisions
403(1)
B The Need for Provision for Application by Children
404(1)
V Conclusions
405(2)
Part VI Related Proceedings and Processes
407(28)
16 Mediation
409(8)
I Introduction
409(1)
II Advantages of Mediation
410(2)
III Problems and Solutions
412(4)
A International Nature
412(1)
B Delay
412(1)
C Enforceability
413(1)
D The Voice of the Child
414(1)
E Domestic Violence
415(1)
IV Conclusions
416(1)
17 Compensating the Left-Behind Parent
417(6)
I Introduction
417(1)
II To What Extent is Compensation Appropriate?
417(2)
A Arguments in Favour of Compensation
417(1)
B Arguments against Compensation
418(1)
III Analysis of the Various Models
419(3)
A The Tort Model
419(1)
B The Criminal Model
419(1)
C The Abduction Convention Model
420(2)
IV Conclusions
422(1)
18 Enforcing Rights of Access
423(12)
I Introduction
423(1)
II Article 21 of the Abduction Convention
424(6)
A Interpretation and Application of Article 21
424(2)
B Analysis
426(4)
III Other International Instruments
430(2)
A The 1980 European Custody Convention
430(1)
B The 1996 Hague Convention on the Protection of Children
430(1)
C The 2003 European Convention on Contact Concerning Children
431(1)
D The Brussels II bis Regulation
431(1)
IV Conclusions
432(3)
Part VII The Way Ahead
435(16)
19 Conclusions and Recommendations
437(14)
I Introduction
437(1)
II Significance of the Developments Since 1980
437(5)
A Children's Rights
437(2)
B Primary Carer Abductions
439(2)
C The Call for a Protocol
441(1)
III Conclusions
442(9)
A Hierarchy of Objectives
442(2)
B Recommendations in Relation to the Interpretation and Application of the Abduction Convention
444(3)
C Recommendations Concerning other Aspects of Implementation of the Abduction Convention
447(4)
Appendix -- Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction 451(10)
Index 461
Rhona Schuz is Professor of Law and Co-Director of the Center for the Rights of the Child and the Family at Sha'arei Mishpat Law School, Israel (formerly lecturer at the London School of Economics and Political Science). She has published many articles on the topic of International Child Abduction as well as a book and numerous articles on other aspects of Family Law, Children's Rights and Private International Law.