Over the last few years the technologies employed in the production of dry pasta and semolina have changed dramatically. This highly practical book examines these changes and gives commercially relevant information to the reader in the areas of durum wheat, semolina production, pasta mixing and extrusion, shape design and quality assurance.
Written principally for food technologists working with pasta as an end product or as an ingredient, this book is also an essential reference source for academic, research and teaching institutions.
Contributors v Preface xiii Introduction 1(10) R.C. Kill What is pasta? 1(1) Pastas past 2(1) Pasta now 3(4) The market for pasta 7(3) Nutrition value 10(1) References and further reading 10(1) Durum Wheat 11(32) G. Wiseman The origins of wheat 11(1) The classification and evolution of modern wheats 12(6) Quality and grain shape 18(5) Factors used to assess quality 22(1) Visual scrutiny 22(1) Test weight 22(1) Blackpoint 22(1) Vitreousness 22(1) Sprouted grains 23(1) Contamination with other wheats 23(1) Protein quality and quantity 23(1) Pasta and legislation 23(1) Verification of authenticity 24(5) Molecular techniques to identify adulteration 29(14) The polymerase chain reaction 29(3) Quantitative PCR and the `Taqman chemistry 32(1) Fluorogenic 5-3 exonuclease assay (Taqman) 33(3) References and further reading 36(4) Appendix: Current commercial T. durum varieties 40(3) Advances in Durum Milling 43(43) Introduction 43(1) Basic semolina requirements 43(2) K. Turnbull Ash 43(1) Particle size 44(1) Speck count 44(1) Colour 44(1) Moisture 45(1) Modern durum wheat cleaning plants 45(10) T. Kuenzli Introduction 45(1) Wheat cleaning principles 45(2) Removal of impurities 47(1) Cleaning of the grain surface 47(1) Tempering 48(1) Cleaning plant 48(1) First cleaning 48(3) Water addition/tempering 51(2) Second cleaning 53(1) Removal of ergot 54(1) Summary 55(1) Particle size requirements of semolina for pasta production 55(9) T. Kuenzli General considerations 55(1) Traditional semolina particle size 56(1) Quality parameters 57(1) Mixing times of semolinas with different particle size distributions 57(1) Semolina size reduction in the pasta factory 57(1) Semolina size reduction in the mill 58(1) Semolina requirements for modern extrusion systems 59(1) Advantage of the eight-roller mill system 60(1) Application of the eight-roller mill system 61(1) Addition of durum flour 61(1) General considerations 61(1) Batch blending and mixing 62(1) Continuous blending 62(1) New durum mill concept 62(1) Flow sheet 62(1) Monitoring/quality assurance 63(1) Features of the new generation of durum mills 63(1) Summary 63(1) The application of a debranning process to durum wheat milling 64(22) M. Willis J. Giles Introduction 64(1) The development of debranning 64(1) The technical challenge 65(1) The challenge of debranning wheat 65(1) Wheat preparation 66(1) Wheat cleaning system 66(1) Water addition for tempering 67(1) Kernel washer and hydrator 68(1) The debranning system 69(1) Overview 69(1) Preconditioning equipment 69(3) Vertical debranning machine 72(3) By-product handling 75(1) Milling debranned wheat 76(3) The characteristics of debranned wheat 79(1) Ash and falling number 79(2) Semolina ash: what is the significance? 81(1) Germ removal with debranning 82(1) The removal of microbiological and other contamination with debranning 83(1) The flow diagam of a mill for debranned wheat 83(2) References and further reading 85(1) Pasta Mixing and Extrusion 86(33) P.R. Dawe Introduction and background 86(4) K.W. Johnston The basic aim of the process 86(1) The scientific basis of mixing and extrusion 86(4) Practical dosing, mixing and extrusion 90(29) W. Dintheer Introduction 90(2) Dosing of the raw materials 92(1) Volumetric screw feeders 93(1) Continuous belt weighers 94(1) Continuous gravimetric feeders 95(1) Mixing 96(3) Influence of the water temperature on the dampening of middlings or flour 99(2) Dough preparation using the co-rotating screw principle 101(1) Extrusion 102(1) Rheology of the extrusion screw 102(1) Kneading and pressure build-up 103(2) Dough temperature 105(2) Influence of the condition of the extrusion screw and of the cylinder on the pasta quality and discharge from the die 107(1) Vacuum systems and the influence of evacuation 107(3) Vacuum defects 110(1) Retention times 110(2) Aspects of hygiene 112(1) CIP process stages 113(1) Flushing of residual dough 113(1) Flushing with washing water 113(1) Alkali treatment 114(1) Flushing with fresh water 115(1) Conclusion 116(1) Trouble-shooting/sources of faults 116(2) References and further reading 118(1) Pasta Shape Design 119(39) P.R. Dawe Introduction 119(1) Principles of die design 119(19) Materials of construction 120(3) General technical design criteria 123(3) Insert components 126(2) The design of pasta theme shapes 128(7) CAD-CAM as applied to dies 135(3) Visual enhancement and functionality 138(11) Ridged pasta - pasta rigati 138(2) Wavy construction - festonate 140(3) Special cutters 143(6) Sheeted pasta 149(1) Die-related faults and their rectification 150(8) Acknowledgements 156(1) References and further reading 157(1) Pasta Drying 158(18) Introduction and background 158(3) K.W. Johnston The basic aim of the process 158(1) The scientific basis of pasta drying 158(3) New drying technology and its influence on the final product quality 161(15) W. Dintheer Introduction 161(1) Historical development of pasta drying 162(1) Effects of HHT drying: main criteria 163(1) Optimum HHT drying diagram 163(4) Effects of drying on the quality of the final products 167(1) Behaviour of lysine in HHT-dried pasta 167(1) Product of colour 168(2) Behaviour of vitamins 170(1) Organoleptic/sensory characteristics of HHT-dried pasta 171(1) Conclusion 172(1) Trouble-shooting: drying process 173(3) Additional Ingredients 176(5) R.C. Kill Spinach 176(1) Tomato 177(1) Egg 177(1) Vitamins 178(3) Quality Assurance in a Dry Pasta Factory 181(40) K. Turnbull Introduction 181(1) The use of HACCP 181(2) The quality assurance of raw materials 183(15) Durum semolina 183(1) Ash 184(2) Moisture content 186(1) Protein content 186(1) Protein quality 187(1) Colour 188(2) Speck count 190(1) Particle size 191(1) α-Amylase level 192(1) Microbiology 192(2) Other potential contaminants 194(1) Non-durum contamination 194(1) Insect infestation 195(1) Water 195(2) Egg 197(1) Other raw materials 197(1) Quality assurance of the process 198(15) Receipt and storage of raw materials 198(1) Semolina 198(4) Water 202(1) Minor raw materials 202(1) The blending and dry mixing of raw materials 202(1) Transfer of dry ingredients to the wet mixer 203(2) The wet mixing process 205(1) Transfer to the extrusion barrel and application of vacuum 206(1) Extrusion and cutting 207(1) Drying 208(3) Pasta storage 211(1) Pasta sieving (on short goods) 212(1) The quality assurance of the finished product 213(8) Safety checks 214(1) Moisture content 214(1) Microbiology 214(1) Contaminants 215(1) Non-durum adulteration 215(1) Quality checks (dry product) 215(1) Colour 215(1) Length control (short goods) 216(1) Die wear 217(1) Cracking 217(1) Breakage 217(1) Other visual defects 218(1) Quality assessment (cooked product) 218(1) Visual assessment 218(1) Starch release during cooking 219(1) Texture 219(1) Aroma and flavour 220(1) Further reading 221(1) Index 222
Ron Kill is Managing Director, Micron Laboratories Ltd, UK.
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