Preface |
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xiii | |
The Editors |
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xv | |
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xvii | |
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1 Monte Carlo Modeling of Photon Migration for the Needs of Biomedical Optics and Biophotonics |
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1 | (72) |
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1 | (8) |
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9 | (15) |
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1.2.1 Implementation of Monte Carlo simulation |
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10 | (1) |
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1.2.2 Transfer of a photon packet in the medium |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (5) |
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17 | (3) |
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1.2.5 Reflection and refraction |
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20 | (4) |
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1.3 Monte Carlo Modeling of Coherent Effects |
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24 | (8) |
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1.3.1 Field correlation transfer |
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24 | (2) |
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26 | (2) |
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28 | (1) |
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1.3.4 Simulation of OCT images |
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29 | (1) |
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1.3.5 Simulation of polarization dependent OCT signal |
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30 | (2) |
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32 | (1) |
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1.4 Online Object Oriented Monte Carlo Computational Tool for the Needs of Biomedical Optics |
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32 | (5) |
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1.4.1 Object oriented concept of Monte Carlo modeling |
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32 | (1) |
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1.4.2 Graphics Processing Unit acceleration of the Monte Carlo model |
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33 | (2) |
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1.4.3 Online solution and web integration |
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35 | (2) |
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1.4.4 Peer-to-Peer computing infrastructure for the Monte Carlo modeling tool |
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37 | (1) |
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1.5 Results of Monte Carlo Simulation |
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37 | (21) |
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1.5.1 Validation of the technique |
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37 | (4) |
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1.5.2 Comparison with the human skin diffuse reflectance spectrum and color measured in vivo |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (5) |
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47 | (4) |
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1.5.5 Coherent effects and polarization |
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51 | (5) |
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1.5.6 Modeling of OCT images |
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56 | (2) |
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58 | (15) |
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2 Quantitative Polarimetry for Tissue Characterization and Diagnosis |
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73 | (36) |
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74 | (1) |
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2.2 Fundamentals of Polarization |
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74 | (4) |
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2.2.1 Polarization states |
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74 | (1) |
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2.2.2 Stokes-Mueller formalism |
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75 | (1) |
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2.2.3 Fundamental polarimetric characteristics |
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76 | (2) |
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2.3 Experimental Polarimetry |
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78 | (7) |
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2.3.1 Stokes polarimeters |
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79 | (2) |
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2.3.2 Mueller polarimeters |
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81 | (4) |
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2.4 Forward Modeling of Polarization Transfer in Complex Random Media |
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85 | (4) |
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2.5 Interpretation and Decomposition of Mueller Matrices |
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89 | (6) |
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2.5.1 Decomposition into basic polarimetric components |
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89 | (3) |
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2.5.2 Experimental verification of decomposition |
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92 | (3) |
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2.6 Biomedical Applications of Polarimetric Measurements |
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95 | (7) |
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2.6.1 Quantitative glucose sensing with Stokes-Mueller polarimetry |
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96 | (3) |
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2.6.2 Mueller matrix quantification of structural anisotropy in tissue |
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99 | (3) |
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102 | (7) |
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3 Spatial and Temporal Frequency Domain Tissue Optical Imaging |
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109 | (28) |
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110 | (2) |
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3.2 Temporal Methods for Optical Property Determination |
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112 | (2) |
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3.3 Spatially-Resolved Methods for Optical Property Determination |
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114 | (11) |
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3.3.1 Spatial Frequency Domain Imaging (SFDI) |
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116 | (3) |
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3.3.2 Depth resolved SFDI |
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119 | (3) |
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122 | (2) |
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3.3.4 Coherent light SFDI |
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124 | (1) |
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3.4 Summary and Future Perspectives |
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125 | (12) |
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4 Multiphoton Microscopy and SHG |
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137 | (30) |
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4.1 Introduction to Nonlinear Optical Microscopy |
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137 | (2) |
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4.2 Theoretical Background of TPF and SHG |
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139 | (3) |
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4.2.1 Two-photon absorption |
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139 | (2) |
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4.2.2 Second-harmonic generation |
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141 | (1) |
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4.3 Spatial Resolution and Image Formation |
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142 | (2) |
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4.4 Technical Features of a Nonlinear Microscope |
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144 | (4) |
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144 | (1) |
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145 | (2) |
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147 | (1) |
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4.5 Biological Applications |
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148 | (19) |
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4.5.1 Nonlinear imaging of skin |
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148 | (2) |
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4.5.2 Multi-photon imaging of bladder tissue |
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150 | (3) |
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4.5.3 Functional imaging by random access microscopy |
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153 | (3) |
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4.5.4 Probing the myosin conformation by SHG microscopy |
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156 | (11) |
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5 Optical Coherence Tomography: Technical Aspect |
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167 | (44) |
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167 | (2) |
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5.1.1 Advantages of OCT over other imaging modalities |
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168 | (1) |
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5.2 Low Coherence Interferometry |
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169 | (4) |
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5.3 OCT Principle of Operation |
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173 | (1) |
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5.4 Practical Aspect of OCT System Design |
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174 | (9) |
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174 | (1) |
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175 | (1) |
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176 | (1) |
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5.4.4 Selection of OCT wavelength |
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177 | (1) |
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5.4.5 Optical sources for OCT |
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178 | (4) |
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5.4.6 Scanning modalities in OCT |
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182 | (1) |
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5.5 Different OCT Detection Schemes |
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183 | (10) |
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5.5.1 Time domain OCT systems |
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183 | (4) |
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5.5.2 Frequency domain OCT |
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187 | (6) |
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193 | (4) |
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5.6.1 Polarization-sensitive OCT |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (2) |
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5.6.3 Optical microangiography |
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196 | (1) |
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196 | (1) |
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5.6.5 Second harmonic OCT |
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197 | (1) |
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5.7 Applications and New Trends in OCT |
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197 | (2) |
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5.7.1 Medical applications |
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197 | (1) |
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5.7.2 Non-medical applications |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (12) |
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6 Speckle in Optical Coherence Tomography |
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211 | (68) |
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212 | (2) |
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6.2 OCT Speckle Characteristics in the Single Scattering Regime |
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214 | (6) |
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6.2.1 OCT speckle: one-dimensional case |
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214 | (2) |
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6.2.2 OCT speckle: three-dimensional case |
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216 | (4) |
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6.3 OCT Speckle Statistics |
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220 | (6) |
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6.3.1 First-order speckle statistics |
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220 | (5) |
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6.3.2 Second-order speckle statistics |
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225 | (1) |
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6.4 OCT Image Formation Using Singly Backscattered Light: Linear System Frame-work |
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226 | (12) |
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6.4.1 Point spread function and coherent transfer function |
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227 | (8) |
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6.4.2 Speckle size: single backscattering case |
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235 | (3) |
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6.5 OCT Image Formation: Multiple Scattering |
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238 | (6) |
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6.5.1 Speckle size: multiple scattering case |
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242 | (2) |
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6.6 Retrieving Information from Speckle |
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244 | (13) |
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6.6.1 Sample discrimination by scatterer density |
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245 | (4) |
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6.6.2 Testing OCT image fidelity: detection of multiple scattering |
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249 | (5) |
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6.6.3 Functional imaging using dynamic OCT speckle |
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254 | (3) |
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6.7 Mitigation of OCT Speckle |
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257 | (11) |
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6.7.1 Experimental methods |
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257 | (6) |
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6.7.2 Post-processing methods |
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263 | (5) |
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268 | (11) |
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7 Optical Coherence Tomography and Light-Induced Fluorescence: Optical Slicing Plus Biochemical Probing |
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279 | (20) |
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279 | (4) |
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7.1.1 Optical Coherence Tomography |
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280 | (1) |
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7.1.2 Light-induced fluorescence |
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281 | (1) |
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7.1.3 Motivation for dual-modality systems |
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282 | (1) |
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7.2 Dual-Modality System Design |
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283 | (7) |
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283 | (1) |
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284 | (1) |
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285 | (4) |
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289 | (1) |
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7.2.5 Multiplexing data acquisition |
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289 | (1) |
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290 | (3) |
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7.3.1 Imaging of the retina |
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290 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Imaging of the colon |
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290 | (2) |
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7.3.3 Imaging of skin-equivalent models |
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292 | (1) |
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293 | (6) |
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8 Multi-Modal Tomography Combining Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) with Fluorescence Laminar Optical Tomography (FLOT) |
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299 | (22) |
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299 | (1) |
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8.2 Combined OCT and FLOT: Instrumentation |
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300 | (1) |
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8.3 FLOT Theory and Image Reconstruction |
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301 | (2) |
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8.4 Results: Phantom Experiments and Subsurface Cancer Imaging |
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303 | (1) |
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8.5 Improvement of FLOT Resolution Using Angled Configuration |
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304 | (6) |
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8.5.1 Theoretical analysis and simulation |
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305 | (3) |
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8.5.2 Experimental validation |
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308 | (2) |
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8.6 Results; Tissue Engineering Applications |
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310 | (2) |
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312 | (9) |
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9 Advances in Blood Flow Imaging |
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321 | (66) |
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321 | (7) |
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9.1.1 The microvasculature and related tissue optics |
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323 | (2) |
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9.1.2 Clinical implications of blood flow assessments |
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325 | (3) |
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9.2 Review of Pioneering Modalities towards Dynamic Data |
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328 | (10) |
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9.2.1 Exogenous contrast mechanisms |
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328 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Endogenous contrast mechanisms |
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329 | (6) |
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335 | (1) |
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9.2.4 Magnetic resonance imaging |
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336 | (1) |
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9.2.5 Positron emission tomography |
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337 | (1) |
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9.3 Optical Sectioning Techniques |
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338 | (20) |
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9.3.1 Histology: staining |
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338 | (1) |
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9.3.2 High resolution sectioning |
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339 | (2) |
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9.3.3 Micro-computed tomography |
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341 | (2) |
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9.3.4 Confocal and two-photon imaging |
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343 | (2) |
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9.3.5 Photoacoustic tomography and microscopy |
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345 | (2) |
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9.3.6 Optical coherence tomography (OCT) |
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347 | (5) |
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352 | (4) |
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9.3.8 Correlation spectroscopy |
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356 | (1) |
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9.3.9 Advancements in flow assessment in OCT |
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356 | (1) |
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9.3.10 Dual-beam techniques |
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357 | (1) |
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358 | (1) |
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358 | (29) |
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10 Optical Microangiography |
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387 | (36) |
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387 | (2) |
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10.2 Optical Microangiography (OMAG) |
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389 | (12) |
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10.2.1 Theoretical aspect of OMAG |
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389 | (5) |
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10.2.2 Extended imaging capabilities of OMAG |
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394 | (7) |
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10.3 Applications of OMAG |
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401 | (7) |
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10.3.1 In vivo imaging of mouse cerebral blood perfusion and vascular plasticity following traumatic brain injury using OMAG |
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402 | (3) |
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10.3.2 Mapping retinal and choroidal microvascular perfusion |
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405 | (1) |
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10.3.3 Volumetric imaging of cochlear blood perfusion in rodent |
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406 | (2) |
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10.4 Ultra High Sensitive OMAG (UHS-OMAG) |
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408 | (6) |
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10.4.1 Scanning protocol and algorithm |
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409 | (2) |
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10.4.2 Ultra-high resolution imaging using Supercontinuum source |
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411 | (3) |
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414 | (9) |
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11 High-Speed Photoacoustic Tomography |
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423 | (26) |
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423 | (2) |
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11.1.1 Fundamentals of photoacoustic tomography |
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423 | (2) |
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11.1.2 Motivations for high-speed photoacoustic tomography |
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425 | (1) |
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11.2 Ultrasonic Transducer Arrays and Image Formation |
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425 | (4) |
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11.2.1 Materials for ultrasonic transducers |
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425 | (1) |
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11.2.2 Ultrasonic array construction and image formation |
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426 | (3) |
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11.3 Photoacoustic Tomography Using Low-Frequency Ultrasonic Arrays |
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429 | (4) |
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11.3.1 Systems based on cylindrical or circular detection geometry |
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429 | (2) |
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11.3.2 Systems based on spherical or arc detection geometry |
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431 | (1) |
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11.3.3 Systems based on planar or linear detection geometry |
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431 | (2) |
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11.4 Photoacoustic Tomography Using High-Frequency Ultrasonic Arrays |
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433 | (5) |
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11.4.1 Acoustic-resolution systems |
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434 | (2) |
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11.4.2 Optical-resolution systems |
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436 | (2) |
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11.5 Other Variations of High-Speed Photoacoustic Tomography |
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438 | (2) |
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11.5.1 Optical-scanning systems |
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438 | (1) |
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11.5.2 Hybrid-scanning systems |
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439 | (1) |
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11.5.3 Voice-coil-based systems |
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439 | (1) |
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440 | (9) |
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12 Optoacoustic Molecular Imaging: Methods and Applications |
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449 | (26) |
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449 | (1) |
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12.2 Optoacoustic Signal Generation |
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450 | (1) |
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12.3 Optoacoustic Wave Propagation |
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451 | (1) |
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12.4 Instrumentation and Implementations |
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452 | (3) |
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12.4.1 Optical backward-mode detection |
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453 | (1) |
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12.4.2 Optoacoustic microscopy |
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453 | (2) |
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12.4.3 Intravascular catheters and endoscopes |
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455 | (1) |
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455 | (1) |
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12.5 Image Reconstruction and Processing |
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455 | (4) |
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12.5.1 Image reconstruction for optoacoustic tomography |
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455 | (1) |
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455 | (1) |
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12.5.3 Model-based inversion |
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456 | (1) |
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456 | (3) |
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459 | (8) |
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12.6.1 Endogenous tissue absorption |
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459 | (2) |
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12.6.2 Exogenous contrast agents |
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461 | (5) |
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466 | (1) |
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467 | (8) |
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13 Multimodal Microscopy for Comprehensive Tissue Characterizations |
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475 | (32) |
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475 | (1) |
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13.2 Laser-Scanning Optical-Resolution Photoacoustic Microscopy |
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476 | (4) |
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13.3 Fused PAM and Spectral-Domain OCT |
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480 | (2) |
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13.4 Fused PAM and Confocal Microscopy |
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482 | (4) |
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13.4.1 Spatial resolution of LSOR-PAM |
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483 | (1) |
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13.4.2 Spatial resolution of FOCON |
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484 | (1) |
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484 | (1) |
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13.4.4 In vivo animal imaging |
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485 | (1) |
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13.5 Improve the Lateral Resolution of PAM with Adaptive Optics |
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486 | (4) |
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13.6 Multimodal In Vivo Retinal Imaging |
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490 | (10) |
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13.6.1 In vivo LSOR-PAM and auto-fluorescence imaging of the retina |
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490 | (3) |
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13.6.2 Integrated LSOR-PAM, OCT, and SLO for in vivo retinal imaging |
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493 | (7) |
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500 | (7) |
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14 Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (AOSLO) |
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507 | (52) |
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507 | (1) |
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14.2 The Structural and Optical Properties of the Human Eye and the Retina |
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508 | (4) |
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508 | (1) |
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509 | (3) |
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14.3 Challenges to High-Resolution Retinal Imaging |
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512 | (2) |
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14.4 The Imaging Characteristics of the SLO |
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514 | (2) |
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14.5 The Aberration of the Human Eye |
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516 | (5) |
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14.5.1 Mathematical expression of the ocular optical aberration |
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517 | (2) |
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14.5.2 The spatial property of human ocular wavefront aberrations |
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519 | (1) |
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14.5.3 The temporal property of human ocular wavefront aberration |
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519 | (2) |
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14.6 Adaptive Optics for the Human Eye |
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521 | (5) |
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14.6.1 Wavefront detection |
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521 | (3) |
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14.6.2 Wavefront correction |
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524 | (2) |
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526 | (7) |
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526 | (2) |
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14.7.2 Optimal pinhole size |
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528 | (2) |
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530 | (1) |
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530 | (2) |
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14.7.5 Image signal conditioning and acquisition |
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532 | (1) |
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533 | (1) |
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14.8 AOSLO Image Processing |
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533 | (2) |
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535 | (5) |
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14.9.1 Reflectance imaging |
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535 | (1) |
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14.9.2 Fluorescence imaging |
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535 | (3) |
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14.9.3 In vivo two-photon retinal imaging |
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538 | (2) |
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14.10 AOSLO for Visual Stimulus Presentation |
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540 | (4) |
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14.10.1 AOSLO imaging of retinal function by measuring intrinsic signal |
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541 | (1) |
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14.10.2 Precise visual stimuli presentation |
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542 | (2) |
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14.11 AOSLO In Vivo Study of Retinal Degenerative Diseases |
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544 | (4) |
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548 | (11) |
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15 Intrinsic Optical Signal Imaging of Retinal Function at Cellular Resolution |
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559 | (22) |
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559 | (2) |
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561 | (1) |
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15.2.1 Ex vivo imaging system |
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561 | (1) |
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15.2.2 In vivo imaging system |
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562 | (1) |
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562 | (1) |
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563 | (10) |
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15.4.1 Preparation of isolated retinas |
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563 | (1) |
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15.4.2 Photodiode recording of integral IOS response in flat-mount retina |
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564 | (1) |
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15.4.3 High resolution IOS imaging of flat-mount retina |
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565 | (1) |
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15.4.4 IOS response elicited by variable strength stimuli |
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566 | (1) |
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15.4.5 Depth-resolved IOS imaging |
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566 | (2) |
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15.4.6 IOS imaging of retinal response stimulated by flicker stimulation |
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568 | (2) |
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15.4.7 IOS imaging of retinal slice |
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570 | (3) |
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573 | (2) |
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575 | (6) |
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16 Isometric 3D Imaging of Cellular Samples Using Optical Projection Tomographic Microscopy |
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581 | (40) |
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582 | (1) |
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16.2 Theory Underlying Optical Projection Tomography Microscopy (OPTM) |
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583 | (5) |
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16.3 Simulation of OPTM Using Individual Microspheres Representing Single Cells |
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588 | (10) |
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589 | (5) |
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16.3.2 Determining the effect of condenser NA on imaging microspheres |
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594 | (1) |
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16.3.3 Potential simulation applications |
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595 | (3) |
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16.4 Multi-Modal Imaging of Isolated Cells for 3D Cytological Analysis |
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598 | (10) |
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16.4.1 Color absorption imaging |
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599 | (1) |
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16.4.2 Dual absorption and fluorescence imaging |
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599 | (3) |
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16.4.3 Advanced visualization |
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602 | (6) |
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16.4.4 Future horizons for single cells analysis |
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608 | (1) |
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16.5 Preliminary Multi-Cellular Imaging for Future Biopsy Diagnosis Using OPTM |
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608 | (6) |
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16.5.1 Proposed analysis of fine needle aspirates using OPTM |
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611 | (1) |
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16.5.2 From cytology to histology |
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612 | (2) |
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614 | (7) |
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17 Tissue Optical Clearing |
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621 | (52) |
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621 | (1) |
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17.2 Mechanisms of Tissue Optical Clearing |
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|
622 | (11) |
|
17.2.1 Optical clearing efficacy of OCAs |
|
|
622 | (3) |
|
17.2.2 Physical mechanism of optical clearing |
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
17.2.3 Dehydration during tissue optical clearing process |
|
|
626 | (3) |
|
17.2.4 Molecular mechanism of optical, clearing |
|
|
629 | (3) |
|
17.2.5 In vivo mechanism of tissue optical clearing |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
17.3 Enhancement Method of Tissue Optical Clearing |
|
|
633 | (8) |
|
17.3.1 Physical enhancement |
|
|
634 | (4) |
|
17.3.2 Chemical penetration enhancer |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
17.3.3 Combination of physical and chemical enhancement |
|
|
639 | (2) |
|
17.4 Slicing Tissue with Optical Clearing Technique |
|
|
641 | (8) |
|
17.4.1 Optical clearing technique for improving imaging depth of microscopy |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
17.4.2 Three-dimensional reconstruction of tissue microstructures |
|
|
642 | (3) |
|
17.4.3 Optical clearing technique for 3D reconstructions of neuronal networks |
|
|
645 | (4) |
|
17.5 In Vivo Application of Tissue Optical Clearing Technique |
|
|
649 | (12) |
|
17.5.1 Effects of optical clearing agents on morphology of skin |
|
|
650 | (1) |
|
17.5.2 Effects of optical clearing agents on microstructure of skin |
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
17.5.3 Effects of optical clearing agents on blood vessels and blood flow |
|
|
652 | (4) |
|
17.5.4 High-resolution imaging dermal blood flow through the intact rat skin |
|
|
656 | (2) |
|
17.5.5 Skull optical clearing for imaging cortical blood flow |
|
|
658 | (2) |
|
17.5.6 Therapeutic applications of tissue optical clearing |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
661 | (12) |
Index |
|
673 | |