Preface |
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xvii | |
Editors |
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xxv | |
Contributors |
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xxvii | |
Chapter 1 Application of Metaheuristic Algorithms in Various Aspects of Electrical Transmission and Systems Protection |
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1 | (32) |
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1 | (1) |
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1.2 Mathematical Representation of Optimization Problem |
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2 | (1) |
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1.3 Metaheuristic Algorithms |
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3 | (2) |
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1.4 Optimal Relay Coordination |
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5 | (6) |
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1.4.1 Formulation of Relay Coordination Problem |
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6 | (3) |
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1.4.2 Illustrative Example |
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9 | (1) |
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1.4.3 State of Research in Optimal Relay Coordination |
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10 | (1) |
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1.5 Optimal PMU Placement |
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11 | (5) |
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1.5.1 Formulation of PMU Placement Problem |
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12 | (1) |
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1.5.2 Illustrative Example |
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13 | (2) |
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1.5.3 State of Research in Problem of PMU Placement |
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15 | (1) |
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1.6 Estimation of Fault Section on Distribution Network |
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16 | (7) |
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1.6.1 Formulation of Fault Section Estimation Problem as an Optimization Problem |
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16 | (2) |
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1.6.2 Illustrative Example |
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18 | (4) |
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1.6.3 State of Research in Fault Section Estimation |
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22 | (1) |
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1.7 Estimation of Fault Location on Transmission Lines |
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23 | (4) |
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1.7.1 Formulation of Fault Location Estimation Problem as an Optimization Problem |
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24 | (1) |
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1.7.2 Illustrative Example |
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25 | (1) |
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1.7.3 State of Research In Fault Location Estimation |
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26 | (1) |
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27 | (1) |
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28 | (5) |
Chapter 2 AI-based Scheme for the Protection of Power Systems Networks Due to Incorporation of Distributed Generations |
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33 | (26) |
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2.1 Introduction to Distributed Generation (DG) |
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33 | (4) |
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2.1.1 What is Distributed Generating (DG)? |
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33 | (1) |
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2.1.2 Advantages of DG Over Conventional Power Generation |
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34 | (2) |
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36 | (1) |
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2.2 Impact of Integration of Distributed Generation on the Power System |
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37 | (1) |
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2.3 Problems During DG Interconnection |
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37 | (2) |
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2.3.1 Operating (Economic) Issues |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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2.3.3 Protection/Safety Issues |
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38 | (1) |
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2.4 Islanding (Formation of Electrical Island) |
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39 | (2) |
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2.4.1 Power Quality Issue |
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40 | (1) |
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40 | (1) |
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2.4.3 Out of Synchronism Reclose |
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41 | (1) |
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41 | (2) |
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41 | (1) |
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2.5.2 Active Islanding Detection Method |
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42 | (1) |
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2.5.3 Passive Islanding Detection Method |
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42 | (1) |
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2.5.4 Hybrid Method of Islanding Detection |
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43 | (1) |
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2.6 Application of Artificial Intelligence for Islanding Detection |
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43 | (4) |
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44 | (1) |
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2.6.2 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) |
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45 | (1) |
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2.6.3 Machine Learning Classifier |
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46 | (1) |
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2.7 Case Study of Classifier (Machine Learning)-Based Islanding Detection |
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47 | (5) |
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2.7.1 Relevance Vector Machine |
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48 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Simulation and Test Cases |
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49 | (1) |
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2.7.3 Feature Vector Formation |
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50 | (1) |
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2.7.4 Training of RVM Classifier |
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51 | (1) |
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2.7.5 Result and Discussion |
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52 | (1) |
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2.8 Protection Miscoordination Due to DG Interconnection |
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52 | (3) |
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2.8.1 Issue of Protection Miscoordination |
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52 | (2) |
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2.8.2 Application of AI Technique for Restoration of Protection Coordination |
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54 | (1) |
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55 | (1) |
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55 | (4) |
Chapter 3 An Intelligent Scheme for Classification of Shunt Faults Including Atypical Faults in Double-Circuit Transmission Line |
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59 | (20) |
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59 | (3) |
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3.2 Description of an Indian Power System Network |
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62 | (1) |
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3.3 Ensemble Tree Classifier (ETC) Model for Classification of CSFs, CCFs, and EVFs |
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63 | (7) |
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3.3.1 Designing of Exclusive Data Sets |
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63 | (5) |
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3.3.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) |
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68 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Bagged Decision Tree |
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68 | (1) |
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3.3.4 Boosted Decision Tree |
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69 | (1) |
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3.3.5 Training/Validation of Proposed ETC Model |
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69 | (1) |
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3.4 Comparative Assessment of Proposed ETC-Model based Classifier Modules |
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70 | (3) |
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3.5 Relative Assessment of Proposed Scheme with Other AI Technique-based Fault Classification Schemes |
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73 | (2) |
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3.6 Effect of Variation in Sampling Rate on Performance of Proposed Classification Scheme |
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75 | (1) |
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76 | (1) |
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77 | (2) |
Chapter 4 An Artificial Intelligence -Based Detection and Classification of Faults on Transmission Lines |
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79 | (32) |
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79 | (5) |
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4.2 The Basic Concepts of Distance Protection |
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84 | (7) |
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4.2.1 Causes of Current Increase Upon Fault Occurrence |
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84 | (1) |
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84 | (4) |
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88 | (1) |
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4.2.4 Sources of Errors In Detection and Classification of Faults |
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88 | (3) |
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4.2.5 Distance Relay Mho Characteristic |
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91 | (1) |
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4.3 AI-Based Fault Diagnosis System |
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91 | (16) |
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4.3.1 Training Data For Artificial Neural Network: (Input/target) Pairs |
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93 | (1) |
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4.3.2 Feed Forward Artificial Neural Network |
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94 | (6) |
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4.3.2.1 Multi-Layer Perceptron Neural Network |
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96 | (1) |
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4.3.2.2 Radial Basis Function Network |
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97 | (1) |
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4.3.2.3 Chebyshev Neural Network |
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97 | (1) |
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4.3.2.4 Probabilistic Neural Network as a Detailed Example of FFNN |
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97 | (3) |
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4.3.3 Support Vector Machine as an Example of ML |
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100 | (3) |
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4.3.4 Convolution Neural Network as an Example of DL |
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103 | (4) |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (3) |
Chapter 5 Intelligent Fault Location Schemes for Modern Power Systems |
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111 | (42) |
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111 | (1) |
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5.2 Conventional Fault Location Review |
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112 | (6) |
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5.2.1 Traveling Wave-Based Fault Locators |
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112 | (2) |
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5.2.2 Impedance Measurement-Based Fault Locators |
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114 | (3) |
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5.2.3 Requirements for Fault Location Process |
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117 | (1) |
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5.3 AI-based Fault Location Schemes |
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118 | (11) |
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5.3.1 ANN-Based Fault Location Computation |
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119 | (5) |
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5.3.2 FL-Based Fault Location Computation |
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124 | (1) |
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5.3.3 GA-Based Fault Location Computation |
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125 | (3) |
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5.3.4 WT-Based Fault Location Computation |
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128 | (1) |
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5.4 Recent Trends in Distribution Network and Smart Grid Requirements |
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129 | (4) |
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5.5 Smart Fault Location Techniques |
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133 | (6) |
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134 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Distributed Smart Meters |
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135 | (1) |
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5.5.3 IoT for Data Collections |
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136 | (1) |
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5.5.4 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (Drones) |
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137 | (2) |
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139 | (4) |
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143 | (10) |
Chapter 6 An Integrated Approach for Fault Detection, Classification and Location in Medium Voltage Underground Cables |
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153 | (26) |
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153 | (1) |
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6.2 Autoregressive Modeling |
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154 | (4) |
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6.3 Extreme Learning Machine |
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158 | (3) |
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6.3.1 Training Extreme Learning Machine |
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161 | (1) |
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6.4 Integrated Approach of the Protection Scheme |
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161 | (2) |
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163 | (2) |
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6.5.1 Simulation Parameters for Training and Testing |
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165 | (1) |
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165 | (1) |
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166 | (4) |
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170 | (1) |
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6.9 Results and Discussion |
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171 | (3) |
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6.9.1 Comparative Evaluation |
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172 | (2) |
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174 | (2) |
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176 | (3) |
Chapter 7 A New High Impedance Fault Detection Technique Using Deep Learning Neural Network |
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179 | (18) |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (1) |
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7.3 The Proposed Deep Learning Approach |
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180 | (8) |
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7.4 The Simulated Experiments and Discussions |
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188 | (2) |
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190 | (2) |
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192 | (2) |
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194 | (1) |
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194 | (3) |
Chapter 8 AI-based Scheme for the Protection of Multi-Terminal Transmission Lines |
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197 | (24) |
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8.1 Introduction to Multi-Terminal Transmission Line |
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197 | (1) |
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8.2 Need of a Multi-Terminal Transmission Line |
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198 | (1) |
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8.2.1 Benefits of a Multi-Terminal Transmission Line |
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199 | (1) |
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8.2.2 Limitations of a Multi-Terminal Transmission Line |
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199 | (1) |
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8.2.3 Protection and Other Technical Issues with Multi-Terminal Transmission Line |
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199 | (1) |
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8.3 Conventional Protection Schemes |
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199 | (4) |
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8.3.1 Distance Protection Scheme |
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200 | (2) |
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8.3.2 Current Differential Scheme |
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202 | (1) |
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8.4 Advanced Multi-End Protection Schemes |
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203 | (7) |
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8.4.1 Synchronized and Unsynchronized Measurement-based Schemes |
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203 | (3) |
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8.4.2 Fundamental and Transient Frequency-based Schemes |
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206 | (4) |
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8.5 AI or Knowledge-based Schemes |
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210 | (5) |
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211 | (1) |
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8.5.2 Fuzzy Interference Systems |
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211 | (1) |
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8.5.3 Support Vector Machine-based Schemes |
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211 | (4) |
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8.6 Adaptive Protection Schemes |
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215 | (4) |
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219 | (1) |
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219 | (2) |
Chapter 9 Data Mining-Based Protection Methodologies for Series Compensated Transmission Network |
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221 | (16) |
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221 | (1) |
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9.2 Relaying Challenges in Series Compensated Transmission Network |
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222 | (3) |
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9.2.1 Under- and Overreaching of Relays |
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222 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Current and Voltage Inversion |
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223 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Precarious Operation of MOV |
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223 | (1) |
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9.2.4 Harmonics and Transients |
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224 | (1) |
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9.3 Data Mining-Based Protection Mechanism |
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225 | (2) |
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9.3.1 DWT and Non-Parametric ML (KNN) based Fault Events Classification Scheme |
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226 | (1) |
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9.3.2 DWT and Non-Parametric ML (SVM) based Fault Events Classification Scheme |
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226 | (1) |
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9.3.3 DWT and Non-Parametric ML (PNN) based Fault Events Classification Scheme |
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227 | (1) |
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9.4 Feasibility and Competency analysis |
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227 | (6) |
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9.4.1 Transforming Fault Events Identification |
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228 | (5) |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (1) |
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235 | (2) |
Chapter 10 AI-Based Protective Relaying Schemes for Transmission Line Compensated with FACTS Devices |
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237 | (18) |
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237 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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10.3 Protection Issues with FACTS Technology Integration |
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239 | (1) |
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240 | (2) |
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10.5 AI-based Application in FACTS-Compensated Transmission Line Protection |
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242 | (8) |
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10.5.1 Training Data Collection and Processing |
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242 | (2) |
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10.5.2 Training Algorithms |
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244 | (6) |
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10.6 Conclusion and Perspectives |
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250 | (1) |
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250 | (5) |
Chapter 11 AI-based PMUs Allocation for Protecting Transmission Lines |
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255 | (36) |
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255 | (1) |
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11.2 Basics of PMUs and WAMS |
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256 | (8) |
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11.2.1 Basic PMU Structure |
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256 | (2) |
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11.2.2 PMU Placement Rules |
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258 | (1) |
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11.2.3 PMU Placement Problem Formulation |
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259 | (5) |
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11.2.3.1 Case #1: Base Case |
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259 | (2) |
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11.2.3.2 Case #2: Considering ZIBs |
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261 | (3) |
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11.2.3.3 Case #3: Loss of a Single PMU |
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264 | (1) |
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11.2.3.4 Case #4: Single Line Outage |
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264 | (1) |
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11.3 Conventional Mathematical Techniques for PMUs Allocation |
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264 | (4) |
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264 | (1) |
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11.3.2 Integer Programming |
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265 | (3) |
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11.3.3 Integer Quadratic Programming |
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268 | (1) |
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11.4 AI Application to PMUs Allocation |
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268 | (1) |
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269 | (14) |
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11.5.1 IEEE 14-Bus System |
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269 | (11) |
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11.5.1.1 Case #1: Base case |
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269 | (1) |
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11.5.1.2 Case #2: Considering ZIBs |
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269 | (10) |
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11.5.1.3 Case #3: Loss of a Single PMU |
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279 | (1) |
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11.5.1.4 Case #4: Single Line Outage |
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279 | (1) |
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11.5.2 IEEE 30-Bus System |
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280 | (15) |
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11.5.2.1 Case #1: Base case |
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280 | (1) |
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11.5.2.2 Case #2: Considering ZIBs |
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280 | (1) |
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11.5.2.3 Case #3: Loss of a single PMU |
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280 | (2) |
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11.5.2.4 Case #4: Single line Outage |
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282 | (1) |
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11.6 Application of PMUs in Protecting Transmission Lines |
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283 | (1) |
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284 | (7) |
Chapter 12 An Expert System for Optimal Coordination of Directional Overcurrent Relays in Meshed Networks |
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291 | (20) |
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291 | (1) |
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12.2 Importance of the ES and its Objectives |
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292 | (1) |
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12.3 Problem Formulation of the Optimal Coordination of DOCR |
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293 | (2) |
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12.4 Structure of the Introduced ES |
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295 | (1) |
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12.4.1 The Mechanism by Which the Introduced ES Work |
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296 | (1) |
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12.5 An ES for Optimal Coordination of DOCR |
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296 | (1) |
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12.5.1 Optimal Coordination Facts |
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296 | (1) |
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12.5.2 Optimal Coordination Rules |
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296 | (1) |
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12.6 Verification of the Introduced ES |
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297 | (12) |
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12.6.1 IEEE 3-Bus Test System |
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298 | (4) |
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12.6.2 The 8-Bus Test System |
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302 | (5) |
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12.6.3 The IEEE 5-Bus Test System |
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307 | (2) |
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309 | (1) |
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309 | (2) |
Chapter 13 Optimal Overcurrent Relay Coordination Considering Standard and Non-Standard Characteristics |
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311 | (28) |
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312 | (1) |
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13.1.1 Methods for Coordination of DOCRs |
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313 | (1) |
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13.2 DOCRs Coordination Problem |
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313 | (2) |
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13.2.1 Boundaries of the Coordination Problem |
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314 | (1) |
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13.2.1.1 Limits on Relay Characteristics |
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314 | (1) |
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13.2.1.2 Boundaries on DOCRs Coordination |
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315 | (1) |
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13.3 Recent Optimization Techniques |
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315 | (6) |
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316 | (3) |
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13.3.1.1 Conventional WCA |
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316 | (2) |
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318 | (1) |
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13.3.2 MFO and IMFO Algorithms |
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319 | (2) |
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13.3.2.1 The MFO Algorithm |
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319 | (1) |
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13.3.2.2 The IMFO Algorithm |
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320 | (1) |
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13.4 Results and Discussion |
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321 | (13) |
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13.4.1 Description of Test Systems |
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322 | (1) |
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13.4.1.1 The Nine-Bus Network |
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322 | (1) |
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13.4.1.2 The 15-Bus Test System |
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323 | (1) |
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13.4.2 Formulated the Coordination Problem Using Standard-CRC |
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323 | (4) |
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13.4.2.1 Using MWCA for Solving the Coordination Problem |
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323 | (4) |
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13.4.3 Solving the Problem of Coordination with Conventional CRC and Non-Conventional CRC |
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327 | (5) |
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13.4.3.1 Scenario 1: Using Conventional CRC in Solving the Problem of Coordination |
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328 | (4) |
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13.4.4 Scenario 2: Using Non-Conventional CRC in Solving the Problem of Coordination |
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332 | (8) |
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13.4.4.1 Nine-Bus Network |
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332 | (1) |
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333 | (1) |
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334 | (1) |
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334 | (5) |
Chapter 14 Artificial Intelligence Applications in DC Microgrid Protection |
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339 | (32) |
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339 | (1) |
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14.2 Technical Considerations of DC Microgrid Protection |
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340 | (13) |
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14.2.1 DC Fault Current Characteristics |
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340 | (4) |
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14.2.1.1 Analysis of the First Stage of the Fault Current |
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341 | (1) |
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14.2.1.2 Analysis of the Second Stage of the Fault Current |
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342 | (2) |
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344 | (12) |
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14.2.2.1 Equipment Fault-Tolerant |
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344 | (1) |
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14.2.2.2 Grounding System |
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344 | (3) |
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14.2.2.3 DC Protective Devices |
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347 | (5) |
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14.2.2.4 Protection Algorithm Capabilities |
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352 | (1) |
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14.3 DC Microgrid Protection Approaches |
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353 | (3) |
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14.4 AI-based Approaches Effectiveness Investigation |
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356 | (9) |
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357 | (2) |
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14.4.2 Feature Extraction |
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359 | (1) |
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14.4.3 Feature Extraction Results |
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360 | (3) |
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14.4.4 Pattern Recognition with ANN |
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363 | (1) |
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14.4.5 Classification Results |
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364 | (1) |
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365 | (1) |
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366 | (5) |
Chapter 15 Soft Computing-Based DC-Link Voltage Control Technique for SAPF in Harmonic and Reactive Power Compensation |
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371 | (16) |
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371 | (1) |
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15.2 System Topology of SAPF |
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372 | (1) |
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15.3 Reference generation techniques for SAPF system |
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372 | (3) |
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15.3.1 Hybrid Control Approach Based Synchronous Reference Frame Method For Active Filter Design (HSRF) |
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372 | (3) |
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15.4 Design of Proposed Fuzzy Logic Controller in SAPF System |
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375 | (1) |
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15.5 Proposed Controller Design Technique for Switching Pattern Generation in SAPF System |
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375 | (4) |
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15.6 Simulation Results for Harmonic Compensation Using SAPF |
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379 | (4) |
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15.7 Experimental Results |
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383 | (2) |
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385 | (1) |
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385 | (2) |
Chapter 16 Artificial Intelligence Application for HVDC Protection |
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387 | (32) |
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387 | (2) |
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16.1.1 Protection Tools Based on Artificial Intelligence |
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388 | (4) |
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388 | (1) |
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389 | (1) |
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389 | (1) |
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16.2 Overview of HVDC Technology |
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389 | (3) |
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392 | (5) |
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16.3.1 DC Fault Phenomena |
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392 | (4) |
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16.3.2 Multi-Terminal HVDC Protection |
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396 | (1) |
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16.4 AI-based Fault Detection |
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397 | (5) |
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16.5 AI-based Fault Classification |
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402 | (1) |
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16.6 Al-based Fault Location |
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403 | (9) |
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16.7 AI-based Commutation Failure (CF) Identification |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (1) |
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413 | (1) |
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414 | (5) |
Chapter 17 Intelligent Schemes for Fault Detection, Classification, and Location in HVDC Systems |
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419 | (34) |
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420 | (1) |
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17.2 An Overview of HVDC Systems |
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421 | (12) |
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422 | (3) |
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425 | (7) |
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17.2.3 Requirements and Challenges |
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432 | (1) |
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17.3 Fault Detection and Classification in CSC-HVDC Systems |
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433 | (2) |
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434 | (1) |
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17.3.2 Learning Algorithms/Models |
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435 | (1) |
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17.4 Fault Location in CSC-HVDC Systems |
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435 | (2) |
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436 | (1) |
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17.4.2 Learning Algorithms/Models |
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436 | (1) |
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17.5 Fault Detection and Classification in VSC-HVDC Systems |
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437 | (2) |
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437 | (1) |
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17.5.2 Learning Algorithms/Models |
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438 | (1) |
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17.6 Fault Location in VSC-HVDC Systems |
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439 | (2) |
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|
440 | (1) |
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17.6.2 Learning Algorithms/Models |
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441 | (1) |
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17.7 Considerations for Practical Implementations |
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|
441 | (3) |
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17.7.1 Implementation Costs |
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|
442 | (1) |
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442 | (1) |
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17.7.3 High-Resistance Faults |
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|
442 | (1) |
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17.7.4 Temporary Arc Faults |
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|
442 | (1) |
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17.7.5 Fault Locations Very Close to Line Terminals |
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|
442 | (1) |
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17.7.6 Operation of Adjacent Circuit Breakers |
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|
443 | (1) |
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17.7.7 Lightning Disturbances |
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|
443 | (1) |
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17.7.8 Measurement Noises/Errors |
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|
443 | (1) |
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17.7.9 Inaccurate Line Parameters |
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|
443 | (1) |
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17.7.10 Communication Delay, Disturbance, and Failure |
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|
443 | (1) |
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17.7.11 Time Synchronization Errors |
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|
444 | (1) |
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|
444 | (1) |
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|
444 | (9) |
Chapter 18 Fault Classification and Location in MT-HVDC Systems based on Machine Learning |
|
453 | (28) |
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453 | (2) |
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18.2 Machine Learning-Based Fault Diagnostic Technique |
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|
455 | (2) |
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18.2.1 Support Vector Machines |
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|
456 | (1) |
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18.2.2 Feature Extraction and Selection |
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|
457 | (1) |
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18.3 DC Faults in MT-HVDC Systems |
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|
457 | (1) |
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18.4 Voltage Source Converters |
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|
458 | (1) |
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18.5 Control System of Voltage Source Converters |
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|
459 | (2) |
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18.6 Control of MT-HVDC System |
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|
461 | (1) |
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18.7 MT-HVDC Test System and Simulation Results |
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|
461 | (15) |
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18.7.1 DC Voltage Analysis |
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|
461 | (5) |
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18.7.2 Frequency-Based Analysis |
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|
466 | (1) |
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18.7.3 Machine Learning Algorithm |
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|
466 | (10) |
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|
476 | (1) |
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|
477 | (4) |
Index |
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481 | |