Preface, |
|
xvii | |
Standard Symbols, |
|
xxi | |
CHAPTER 1 Detectors |
|
1 | |
|
1.1 OPTICAL AND INFRARED DETECTION |
|
|
1 | |
|
|
1 | |
|
|
2 | |
|
|
2 | |
|
|
8 | |
|
1.1.4.1 Photoelectric Effect |
|
|
11 | |
|
|
14 | |
|
1.1.6 Detector Parameters |
|
|
15 | |
|
|
16 | |
|
1.1.8 Charge-Coupled Devices |
|
|
17 | |
|
|
30 | |
|
|
30 | |
|
1.1.11 Superconducting Tunnel Junction Detectors |
|
|
33 | |
|
1.1.12 Other Types of Detectors |
|
|
34 | |
|
1.1.12.1 Photovoltaic Cells |
|
|
34 | |
|
|
38 | |
|
1.1.12.3 Phototransistors |
|
|
39 | |
|
1.1.13 Infrared Detectors |
|
|
39 | |
|
1.1.13.1 Photoconductive Cells |
|
|
40 | |
|
|
43 | |
|
1.1.13.3 Other Types of Detectors |
|
|
45 | |
|
1.1.14 Ultraviolet Detectors |
|
|
46 | |
|
1.1.15 Future Possibilities |
|
|
47 | |
|
|
47 | |
|
|
48 | |
|
|
50 | |
|
|
51 | |
|
|
51 | |
|
1.1.17.1 Telescopes from the Beginning |
|
|
51 | |
|
|
61 | |
|
|
89 | |
|
|
89 | |
|
|
93 | |
|
1.1.19 Telescopes in Space |
|
|
107 | |
|
|
109 | |
|
1.1.21 Real-Time Atmospheric Compensation |
|
|
114 | |
|
|
116 | |
|
1.1.21.2 Wavefront Sensing |
|
|
120 | |
|
1.1.21.3 Wavefront Correction |
|
|
122 | |
|
1.1.22 Future Developments |
|
|
124 | |
|
1.1.23 Observing Domes, Enclosures, and Sites |
|
|
127 | |
|
|
130 | |
|
1.2 RADIO AND MICROWAVE DETECTION |
|
|
131 | |
|
|
131 | |
|
1.2.2 Detectors and Receivers |
|
|
133 | |
|
|
139 | |
|
|
151 | |
|
|
153 | |
|
1.3 X-RAY AND γ-RAY DETECTION |
|
|
153 | |
|
|
153 | |
|
|
155 | |
|
|
155 | |
|
1.3.2.2 Proportional Counters |
|
|
156 | |
|
1.3.2.3 Scintillation Detectors |
|
|
158 | |
|
1.3.2.4 Gas Scintillation Proportional Counters |
|
|
159 | |
|
1.3.2.5 Charge-Coupled Devices |
|
|
160 | |
|
1.3.2.6 Superconducting Tunnel Junction Detectors |
|
|
160 | |
|
1.3.2.7 Compton Interaction Detectors |
|
|
161 | |
|
|
161 | |
|
1.3.2.9 Cerenkov Detectors |
|
|
161 | |
|
1.3.2.10 Solid-State Detectors |
|
|
162 | |
|
1.3.2.11 Micro-Channel Plates |
|
|
165 | |
|
1.3.2.12 Future Possibilities |
|
|
166 | |
|
|
167 | |
|
|
168 | |
|
|
168 | |
|
1.3.4.2 Coincidence Detectors |
|
|
172 | |
|
|
172 | |
|
1.3.4.4 Reflecting Telescopes |
|
|
172 | |
|
1.3.5 Resolution and Image Identification |
|
|
178 | |
|
|
179 | |
|
1.3.6.1 Grating Spectrometers |
|
|
179 | |
|
1.3.6.2 Bragg Spectrometers |
|
|
181 | |
|
|
183 | |
|
1.3.8 Observing Platforms |
|
|
184 | |
|
|
185 | |
|
|
185 | |
|
|
186 | |
|
|
187 | |
|
|
187 | |
|
1.4.3.2 Scintillation Detectors |
|
|
188 | |
|
1.4.3.3 Cerenkov Detectors |
|
|
188 | |
|
1.4.3.4 Solid-State Detectors |
|
|
190 | |
|
1.4.3.5 Nucleon Detectors |
|
|
190 | |
|
1.4.4 Residual Track Detectors |
|
|
191 | |
|
1.4.4.1 Photographic Emulsions |
|
|
191 | |
|
1.4.4.2 Ionization Damage Detectors |
|
|
192 | |
|
|
193 | |
|
|
193 | |
|
|
193 | |
|
|
194 | |
|
1.4.5.4 Solar Cosmic Rays |
|
|
194 | |
|
|
194 | |
|
|
195 | |
|
|
196 | |
|
1.4.7.1 Atmospheric Effects |
|
|
196 | |
|
|
197 | |
|
1.4.7.3 Terrestrial Magnetic Field |
|
|
198 | |
|
|
198 | |
|
|
200 | |
|
|
200 | |
|
1.5.2 Chlorine-37 Detectors |
|
|
203 | |
|
1.5.3 Water-Based Detectors |
|
|
206 | |
|
1.5.4 Gallium-Based Detectors |
|
|
211 | |
|
1.5.5 Scintillator-Based Detectors |
|
|
212 | |
|
|
213 | |
|
1.5.7 Other Types of Detectors |
|
|
213 | |
|
1.5.7.1 Direct Interaction Type Detectors |
|
|
213 | |
|
1.5.7.2 Geological Detectors |
|
|
215 | |
|
|
216 | |
|
1.6 GRAVITATIONAL RADIATION |
|
|
217 | |
|
|
217 | |
|
|
220 | |
|
1.6.2.1 Direct Resonant Detectors |
|
|
220 | |
|
1.6.2.2 Direct, Nonresonant Detectors |
|
|
221 | |
|
1.6.2.3 Indirect Detectors |
|
|
225 | |
|
|
226 | |
|
1.7 DARK MATTER AND DARK ENERGY DETECTION |
|
|
226 | |
|
|
226 | |
|
1.7.2 Dark Matter and Dark Energy Detectors |
|
|
228 | |
CHAPTER 2 Imaging |
|
233 | |
|
|
233 | |
|
|
234 | |
|
|
240 | |
|
|
240 | |
|
2.2.2 Structure of the Photographic Emulsion |
|
|
242 | |
|
|
246 | |
|
|
253 | |
|
|
255 | |
|
|
255 | |
|
2.2.5.2 Gas Immersion Effects |
|
|
255 | |
|
2.2.6 Techniques of Astronomical Photography |
|
|
256 | |
|
2.2.7 Analysis of Photographic Images |
|
|
258 | |
|
|
259 | |
|
|
259 | |
|
2.3.2 Television and Related Systems |
|
|
260 | |
|
|
260 | |
|
2.3.4 Photon Counting Imaging Systems |
|
|
260 | |
|
|
261 | |
|
|
265 | |
|
|
265 | |
|
2.5.2 Michelson Optical Stellar Interferometer |
|
|
266 | |
|
2.5.3 Michelson Radio Interferometer |
|
|
279 | |
|
2.5.4 Reflection Interferometers |
|
|
285 | |
|
|
285 | |
|
2.5.6 Intensity Interferometer |
|
|
294 | |
|
|
297 | |
|
2.6 SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY |
|
|
298 | |
|
|
303 | |
|
|
303 | |
|
|
307 | |
|
|
310 | |
|
|
311 | |
|
|
311 | |
|
2.8.2 Theoretical Principles |
|
|
312 | |
|
|
319 | |
|
|
320 | |
|
|
323 | |
|
|
323 | |
|
|
324 | |
|
|
324 | |
|
|
324 | |
|
|
326 | |
|
|
326 | |
|
2.9.3.2 Image Combination |
|
|
327 | |
|
2.9.3.3 Spatial Filtering |
|
|
327 | |
CHAPTER 3 Photometry |
|
329 | |
|
|
329 | |
|
|
329 | |
|
|
329 | |
|
|
330 | |
|
|
333 | |
|
|
341 | |
|
|
356 | |
|
|
357 | |
|
|
357 | |
|
|
357 | |
|
3.2.1.2 Photographic Photometry |
|
|
357 | |
|
3.2.1.3 CCD and Photoelectric Photometers |
|
|
359 | |
|
3.2.2 Observing Techniques |
|
|
360 | |
|
3.2.3 Data Reduction and Analysis |
|
|
362 | |
|
|
365 | |
CHAPTER 4 Spectroscopy |
|
367 | |
|
|
367 | |
|
|
367 | |
|
4.1.2 Diffraction Gratings |
|
|
367 | |
|
|
381 | |
|
|
394 | |
|
4.1.4.1 Fabry—Perot Interferometer |
|
|
394 | |
|
4.1.4.2 Michelson Interferometer |
|
|
402 | |
|
|
409 | |
|
|
411 | |
|
|
412 | |
|
4.2.1 Basic Design Considerations |
|
|
412 | |
|
4.2.2 Prism-Based Spectroscopes |
|
|
421 | |
|
4.2.3 Grating Spectroscopes |
|
|
425 | |
|
4.2.4 Integral Field Spectroscopy |
|
|
430 | |
|
4.2.5 Multi-Object Spectroscopy |
|
|
433 | |
|
4.2.6 Techniques of Spectroscopy |
|
|
435 | |
|
4.2.7 Future Developments |
|
|
441 | |
|
|
441 | |
CHAPTER 5 Other Techniques |
|
443 | |
|
|
443 | |
|
|
443 | |
|
|
444 | |
|
5.1.2.1 Coordinate Systems |
|
|
444 | |
|
5.1.2.2 Position Angle and Separation |
|
|
448 | |
|
|
448 | |
|
5.1.4 Photographic Zenith Tube and the Impersonal Astrolabe |
|
|
450 | |
|
|
452 | |
|
5.1.6 Astrographs and Other Telescopes |
|
|
453 | |
|
|
454 | |
|
5.1.8 Space-Based Systems |
|
|
455 | |
|
|
457 | |
|
5.1.10 Measurement and Reduction |
|
|
458 | |
|
5.1.11 Sky Surveys and Catalogs |
|
|
461 | |
|
|
462 | |
|
|
463 | |
|
|
463 | |
|
5.2.1.1 Stokes' Parameters |
|
|
463 | |
|
5.2.2 Optical Components for Polarimetry |
|
|
467 | |
|
|
468 | |
|
|
471 | |
|
|
476 | |
|
|
480 | |
|
|
481 | |
|
5.2.3.1 Photographic Polarimeters |
|
|
482 | |
|
5.2.3.2 Photoelectric Polarimeters |
|
|
483 | |
|
5.2.3.3 CCD and Other Array Detector Polarimeters |
|
|
486 | |
|
|
487 | |
|
5.2.5 Data Reduction and Analysis |
|
|
487 | |
|
|
489 | |
|
|
490 | |
|
|
490 | |
|
|
491 | |
|
|
497 | |
|
|
499 | |
|
|
506 | |
|
|
509 | |
|
|
510 | |
|
5.3.8 Other Solar Observing Methods |
|
|
510 | |
|
|
512 | |
|
|
512 | |
|
|
512 | |
|
|
512 | |
|
|
520 | |
|
5.4.3 Data Reduction and Analysis |
|
|
525 | |
|
5.5 COMPUTERS AND THE INTERNET |
|
|
526 | |
|
|
526 | |
|
5.5.2 Digital Sky Surveys |
|
|
527 | |
|
5.5.3 Virtual Observatories |
|
|
528 | |
Appendix A: Julian Date |
|
531 | |
Appendix B: Answers to the Exercises |
|
533 | |
Appendix C: Acronyms |
|
535 | |
Appendix D: Bibliography |
|
543 | |
Index |
|
549 | |