| Preface |
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xiii | |
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xv | |
| Introduction |
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1 | (5) |
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6 | (41) |
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1.1 A First Definition of Reproduction |
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7 | (6) |
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Box 1.1 Spontaneous Generation |
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8 | (4) |
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Box 1.2 Other Reproductions |
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12 | (1) |
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1.2 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction |
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13 | (5) |
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Box 1.3 Sexual or Asexual? |
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13 | (5) |
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1.3 Generation, Life Cycle, Development |
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18 | (7) |
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18 | (3) |
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21 | (3) |
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24 | (1) |
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1.4 Reproduction and Individuality |
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25 | (7) |
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1.4.1 Genetic Uniqueness of the Individual |
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26 | (1) |
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1.4.2 Genetic Uniformity of the Individual |
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26 | (3) |
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1.4.3 Autonomy and Physiological Unity of the Individual |
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29 | (1) |
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1.4.4 How Many Kinds of Individual? |
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30 | (2) |
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1.5 Reproduction and Senescence |
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32 | (9) |
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35 | (6) |
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41 | (6) |
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1.6.1 Reproduction vs. Transformation |
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41 | (2) |
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1.6.2 Reproduction vs. Growth |
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43 | (2) |
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1.6.3 Reproduction vs. Regeneration |
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45 | (2) |
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2 Reproduction and Life Cycle |
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47 | (39) |
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2.1 Alternation of Nuclear Phases |
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48 | (9) |
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53 | (1) |
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2.1.1 Isomorphic and Heteromorphic Haplodiplontic Cycles |
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54 | (1) |
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2.1.2 Haplodiplontic Cycles with Homospory and Heterospory |
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54 | (3) |
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2.1.3 Haplodiplontic Cycles and Asexual Reproduction |
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57 | (1) |
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2.2 Alternation of Sexual and Asexual Generations: Metagenetic Cycles |
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57 | (6) |
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Box 2.2 The `Immortal Jellyfish' |
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59 | (2) |
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Box 2.3 Metagenesis vs. Metamorphosis |
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61 | (2) |
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2.3 Alternation of Amphigonic and Parthenogenetic Generations: Heterogonic Cycles |
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63 | (3) |
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2.4 Alternation of Gonochoric and Hermaphrodite Generations: Heterogenic Cycles |
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66 | (1) |
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2.5 Alternation of Solitary and Colonial Generations |
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67 | (2) |
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2.6 Alternation of Unicellular and Multicellular Generations |
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69 | (2) |
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2.7 Alternation of Generations by Seasonal Polyphenism |
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71 | (2) |
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2.8 Cycles with Reproductive Options |
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73 | (2) |
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2.9 Distribution of Reproductive Phases Within One Generation |
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75 | (9) |
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84 | (2) |
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3 The Natural History of Reproduction |
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86 | (110) |
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86 | (20) |
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3.1.1 Asexual Reproduction in Unicellular Organisms |
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87 | (1) |
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3.1.1.1 Cell Division in Prokaryotes |
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87 | (2) |
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3.1.1.2 Cell Division in Unicellular Eukaryotes |
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89 | (1) |
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3.1.2 Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms |
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90 | (1) |
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3.1.2.1 Unicellular Propagules |
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91 | (1) |
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92 | (2) |
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3.1.2.2 Multicellular Propagules in Plants and Fungi |
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94 | (2) |
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3.1.2.3 Multicellular Propagules in Metazoans |
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96 | (6) |
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3.1.2.4 Polyembryony and Larval Amplification |
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102 | (4) |
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3.2 Sexual Reproduction: Gametes and Syngamy |
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106 | (10) |
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Box 3.2 The Evolutionary Enigma of Sex |
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107 | (4) |
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3.2.1 Isogamety, Anisogamety, Oogamety |
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111 | (1) |
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112 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Gametogamy, Gamontogamy, Autogamy |
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113 | (2) |
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115 | (1) |
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3.3 Distribution of Sex Conditions Within a Species or Population |
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116 | (19) |
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3.3.1 Gonochorism (Dioecy) |
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116 | (1) |
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3.3.1.1 Secondary Sexual Characters in Plants |
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117 | (1) |
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3.3.1.2 Secondary Sexual Characters in Animals |
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118 | (4) |
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3.3.2 Hermaphroditism (Monoecy) |
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122 | (1) |
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3.3.2.1 Monoecy in Land Plants |
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122 | (3) |
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3.3.2.2 Hermaphroditism in Metazoans |
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125 | (8) |
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3.3.3 Androdioecy, Gynodioecy and Trioecy |
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133 | (2) |
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3.4 Germ Cells in Sexual Reproduction |
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135 | (14) |
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3.4.1 Production of Gametes in Animals |
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135 | (1) |
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Box 3.4 Germline Segregation in Animals |
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136 | (1) |
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3.4.1.1 Reproductive Organs in Animals |
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136 | (2) |
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3.4.1.2 Gametogenesis in Animals |
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138 | (2) |
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3.4.1.3 Gametes in Animals |
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140 | (4) |
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3.4.2 Production of Gametes and Spores in Plants |
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144 | (1) |
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3.4.2.1 Reproductive Organs, Gametogenesis and Sporogenesis in Land Plants |
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144 | (4) |
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3.4.2.2 Gametes in Land Plants |
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148 | (1) |
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3.5 Biparental Sexual Reproduction (Amphigony) |
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149 | (24) |
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3.5.1 Encounter and Fusion of Gametes |
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149 | (3) |
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3.5.2 Modes of Gamete Encounter |
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152 | (1) |
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3.5.2.1 Sperm Transfer in Animals |
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152 | (4) |
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3.5.2.2 Transfer of Gametes in Embryophytes |
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156 | (1) |
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3.5.3 Strategies that Promote Encounters Between Gametes |
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157 | (1) |
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3.5.3.1 Strategies of External Fertilization |
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157 | (1) |
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3.5.3.2 Meeting of Partners in Animals with Internal Fertilization |
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158 | (4) |
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3.5.3.3 Pollination in Seed Plants |
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162 | (4) |
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166 | (1) |
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3.5.4.1 Fertilization in Animals |
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166 | (1) |
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3.5.4.2 Fertilization in Seed Plants |
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167 | (1) |
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3.5.5 Reproductive Incompatibility |
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168 | (3) |
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171 | (2) |
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3.6 Uniparental Sexual Reproduction |
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173 | (23) |
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173 | (1) |
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174 | (2) |
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3.6.2.1 Thelytokous Parthenogenesis |
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176 | (2) |
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3.6.2.2 Arrhenotokous and Pseudoarrhenotokous Parthenogenesis |
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178 | (2) |
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3.6.2.3 Geographical Parthenogenesis |
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180 | (1) |
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3.6.2.4 Accidental Parthenogenesis |
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181 | (1) |
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181 | (3) |
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3.6.2.6 Cyclical Parthenogenesis |
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184 | (1) |
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3.6.2.7 Hybrids and Parthenogenesis |
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184 | (1) |
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3.6.2.8 Infectious Parthenogenesis |
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184 | (2) |
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3.6.2.9 Parthenogenesis in Plants |
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186 | (5) |
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191 | (2) |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (2) |
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4 Parental Investment in Sexual Reproduction |
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196 | (40) |
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4.1 A First Look at Parental Investment Costs |
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197 | (3) |
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4.1.1 Reproduction Costs in Animals |
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197 | (2) |
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4.1.2 Reproduction Costs in Seed Plants |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (5) |
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4.2.1 Measuring Fecundity |
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201 | (1) |
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4.2.2 r/k Reproductive Strategies |
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201 | (4) |
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4.3 Temporal Distribution of Reproductive Effort |
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205 | (5) |
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Box 4.1 Pregnancy, Lactation and Sexual Maturity in Mammals |
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208 | (2) |
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4.4 Investment of Animals in Egg and Embryo Development |
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210 | (15) |
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211 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Viviparity and Incubation |
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212 | (2) |
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214 | (7) |
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221 | (4) |
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4.5 Parental Care in Animals |
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225 | (4) |
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4.6 Investment of Plants in Gametophyte and Sporophyte Development |
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229 | (7) |
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4.6.1 Gametophyte Development |
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229 | (1) |
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4.6.2 Sporophyte Development |
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230 | (1) |
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4.6.3 Seed and Fruit Development |
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231 | (5) |
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5 Genetics and Cytogenetics of Reproduction |
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236 | (61) |
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237 | (17) |
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239 | (2) |
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5.1.1 Genetic Variation Resulting from New Mutations |
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241 | (1) |
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5.1.1.1 Mutations Resulting from Errors in DNA Replication |
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241 | (1) |
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5.1.1.2 Mutations Resulting from Other Causes |
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241 | (1) |
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5.1.1.3 Mutations and Mosaicism |
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242 | (1) |
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5.1.2 Genetic Variation Resulting from Recombination |
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243 | (1) |
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5.1.3 Genetic Variation Resulting from Stochastic Segregation |
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244 | (1) |
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5.1.3.1 Random Segregation of Plasmids in the Prokaryotic Cell |
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245 | (1) |
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5.1.3.2 Mitotic Segregation of Cytoplasmic Organelles |
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246 | (1) |
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Box 5.2 Genetic Elements of the Prokaryotic Cell |
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247 | (1) |
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Box 5.3 Genetic Elements of the Eukaryotic Cell |
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248 | (2) |
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5.1.3.3 Amitosis in Ciliates |
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250 | (1) |
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5.1.4 Epigenetic Variation |
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251 | (1) |
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5.1.5 Unconventional Mechanisms of Cell Division in Eukaryotes |
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252 | (1) |
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5.1.5.1 Division of Multinucleate Cells |
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252 | (1) |
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5.1.5.2 Variants of Mitosis |
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253 | (1) |
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5.1.6 Intermittent Episodes of Sexual Reproduction |
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253 | (1) |
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5.2 Sexual Reproduction and Sex |
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254 | (43) |
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255 | (1) |
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5.2.1.1 Mechanisms of Genetic Exchange in Prokaryotes |
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256 | (3) |
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5.2.1.2 Quantitative Aspects of Genetic Exchange in Prokaryotes |
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259 | (1) |
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5.2.2 General Aspects of Sexual Reproduction in Eukaryotes |
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259 | (1) |
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5.2.2.1 Synopsis of the Sources of Genetic Variation |
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260 | (1) |
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5.2.2.2 Independent Assortment of Chromosomes and Chromatids |
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261 | (3) |
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5.2.2.3 Recombination in the Strict Sense |
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264 | (1) |
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265 | (5) |
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270 | (1) |
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5.2.3 Genetics of Hereditary Transmission Through Different Modes of Sexual Reproduction |
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271 | (1) |
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271 | (4) |
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5.2.3.2 Self-Fertilization |
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275 | (3) |
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278 | (8) |
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5.2.3.4 Gynogenesis and Pseudogamy |
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286 | (1) |
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287 | (2) |
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5.2.3.6 Paternal Genome Loss |
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289 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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290 | (2) |
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5.2.5 Special Cases of Sexual Processes in Eukaryotes |
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292 | (1) |
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5.2.5.1 Ciliate Conjugation |
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292 | (1) |
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5.2.5.2 Parasexual Cycle in Fungi |
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293 | (1) |
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294 | (3) |
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6 Determination of Sex and Mating Type |
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297 | (45) |
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6.1 Genetic Sex-Determination Systems |
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301 | (23) |
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6.1.1 Chromosomal Sex-Determination Systems |
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301 | (4) |
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6.1.1.1 XY and ZW Systems |
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305 | (2) |
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Box 6.1 X:A in Drosophila |
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307 | (2) |
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6.1.1.2 X0 and Z0 Systems |
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309 | (1) |
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310 | (1) |
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6.1.1.4 Systems with Multiple Heterochromosomes |
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311 | (4) |
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6.1.1.5 Other Chromosomal Systems |
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315 | (1) |
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6.1.1.6 Dosage Compensation |
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315 | (3) |
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Box 6.2 Dmrt Genes and Sex Development in Animals |
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318 | (1) |
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6.1.2 Genie Sex-Determination Systems |
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319 | (1) |
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6.1.3 Haplodiploid Sex-Determination System |
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320 | (4) |
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6.2 Environmental Sex-Determination Systems |
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324 | (7) |
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6.2.1 Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination |
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324 | (2) |
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6.2.2 Sex Determination Through Interaction with Conspecifics |
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326 | (2) |
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6.2.3 Other Environmental Sex-Determination Systems |
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328 | (1) |
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328 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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330 | (1) |
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6.3 Maternal Sex-Determination Systems |
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331 | (2) |
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6.4 Mixed Sex-Determination Systems and Random Sex Determination |
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333 | (2) |
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6.5 Notes on Sexual Differentiation |
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335 | (3) |
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6.6 Determination of Mating Type |
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338 | (4) |
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7 Reproduction: a Taxonomic Survey |
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342 | (62) |
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7.1 Protists (Unicellular Eukaryotes) |
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342 | (8) |
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344 | (1) |
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7.1.2 Apicomplexans (Sporozoans) |
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344 | (1) |
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7.1.3 Dinoflagellates (Dinophyceans) |
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345 | (1) |
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345 | (2) |
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347 | (2) |
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349 | (1) |
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349 | (1) |
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349 | (1) |
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350 | (1) |
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7.2 Brown Algae (Phaeophyceans) |
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350 | (2) |
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7.3 Red Algae (Rhodophyceans) |
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352 | (2) |
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7.4 Green Plants (Viridiplantae) |
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354 | (18) |
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354 | (1) |
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Box 7.1 The Complex Life Cycles of Some Green Algae |
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355 | (5) |
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360 | (2) |
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362 | (2) |
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364 | (2) |
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366 | (6) |
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372 | (7) |
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373 | (1) |
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374 | (1) |
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375 | (1) |
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375 | (1) |
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376 | (2) |
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378 | (1) |
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379 | (1) |
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379 | (25) |
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380 | (1) |
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380 | (2) |
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Box 7.2 Special Cases of Cnidarian Life Cycles |
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382 | (1) |
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383 | (1) |
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7.6.4 Placozoans, Orthonectids, Dicyemids |
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383 | (1) |
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384 | (1) |
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384 | (1) |
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7.6.7 Gnathostomulids and Micrognathozoans |
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384 | (1) |
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385 | (1) |
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7.6.9 Flatworms (Rhabditophorans and Catenulids) |
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386 | (1) |
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387 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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7.6.13 Bryozoans, Phoronids, Brachiopods |
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388 | (1) |
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389 | (2) |
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7.6.15 Annelids (Including Pogonophorans, Sipunculids and Echiurids) |
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391 | (3) |
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7.6.16 Tardigrades and Onychophorans |
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394 | (1) |
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7.6.17 Nematomorphs, Priapulids, Loriciferans and Kinorhynchs |
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394 | (1) |
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394 | (1) |
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395 | (5) |
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400 | (1) |
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400 | (1) |
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401 | (1) |
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401 | (1) |
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401 | (1) |
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7.6.25 Vertebrates or Craniotes |
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402 | (2) |
| Coda |
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404 | (3) |
| Appendix: A Classification of Living Organisms |
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407 | (8) |
| References |
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415 | (22) |
| Taxonomic Index |
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437 | (21) |
| Subject Index |
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458 | |