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ix | |
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xiii | |
| Appendix: Supplementary Figures |
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xv | |
| Preface |
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xvii | |
| Key for figures |
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xx | |
| Acknowledgements |
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xxi | |
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SECTION A LANGUAGE AND CONCEPTS OF SYSTEMS THEORY |
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1 | (36) |
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Chapter A.1 Reality, Abstractions and Systems |
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3 | (6) |
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Systems as models for relationships |
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5 | (1) |
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5 | (1) |
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Scientific method and evidence-based research |
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6 | (3) |
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Chapter A.2 Types of Systems |
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9 | (2) |
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Functional classification |
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9 | (1) |
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Structural classification |
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9 | (2) |
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Chapter A.3 Structure and Relationship in Systems |
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11 | (4) |
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11 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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Association and causation |
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13 | (2) |
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Chapter A.4 Systems States |
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15 | (4) |
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Feedback, self-regulation and equilibrium states |
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15 | (1) |
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16 | (1) |
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Biological systems: the nature of responses |
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16 | (3) |
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Chapter A.5 Measurement of Relationships in Systems |
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19 | (11) |
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The data box: classes, components and elements |
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19 | (2) |
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21 | (3) |
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Regression, noise and inferring cause-effect relationships |
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24 | (2) |
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Path analysis and structural equations |
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26 | (1) |
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Size, order and hierarchy in relationships |
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26 | (1) |
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27 | (2) |
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Approaches to the probability of events |
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29 | (1) |
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Chapter A.6 Catering for Taxa and Phylogenies |
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30 | (4) |
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30 | (2) |
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Proximity of relationships: phylogeny and/or convergence |
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32 | (2) |
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Chapter A.7 Systematic Reviews of Research Findings: Meta-analysis and Evidence-based Programmes |
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34 | (3) |
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SECTION B PERSPECTIVES ON BUTTERFLY BIOLOGY |
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37 | (64) |
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Chapter B.1 Taxonomic Constraints in Biological Systems |
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39 | (11) |
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39 | (3) |
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42 | (3) |
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Differences among butterfly clades: basic sources and indications |
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45 | (1) |
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Taxonomy and shifting relationships |
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46 | (1) |
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Transformation: breaking the species barrier |
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46 | (4) |
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Chapter B.2 The Time Frame in Butterfly Biology Systems |
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50 | (9) |
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The butterfly fossil record |
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50 | (2) |
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Butterfly-plant evolution |
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52 | (7) |
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Chapter B.3 The Space Frame for Butterfly Biology Systems |
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59 | (5) |
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The grain and extent of studies |
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59 | (1) |
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The interlocking space-time frame |
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59 | (3) |
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Faunas and faunal regions |
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62 | (2) |
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Chapter B.4 Habitat: the Context for Individuals and Populations |
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64 | (10) |
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Traditional habitat space and its failings |
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64 | (2) |
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The resource-based habitat - basic ideas and extensions |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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Measures of resource integration and compaction |
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68 | (1) |
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The resource-based habitat - extending the scope and narrowing the focus |
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69 | (2) |
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Movement: the glue that links resource use |
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71 | (3) |
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Chapter B.5 The Butterfly Body Frame: Basic Contrasts in Butterfly Biology |
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74 | (14) |
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74 | (2) |
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Contrasts in form: horses for courses |
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76 | (2) |
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Evolutionary development of endless patterns and forms |
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78 | (3) |
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Stages of development and variation in appearance: local and global diversity |
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81 | (4) |
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Sexual dimorphism: sexual selection or natural selection |
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85 | (3) |
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Chapter B.6 Trade-offs and Regulation in Butterfly Biology |
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88 | (5) |
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Chapter B.7 Model Taxa and Model Systems |
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93 | (3) |
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Chapter B.8 Butterfly Databases |
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96 | (3) |
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Chapter B.9 Basic Connections and Broad Divisions in Butterfly Biology |
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99 | (2) |
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SECTION C BUTTERFLY LIFE HISTORY - BASIC TRADE-OFFS IN REPRODUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND SURVIVAL |
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101 | (102) |
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Chapter C.1 Size, Brood Number and Development: Fewer Large Eggs or More Small Eggs? |
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106 | (8) |
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Across-species maternal egg-size associations |
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106 | (2) |
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Within-species egg-size fecundity relationships |
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108 | (4) |
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Cautionary messages from fine resolution research |
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112 | (2) |
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Chapter C.2 Conundrum of Larval Growth: Fast and Small, Slow and Large, or Neither? |
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114 | (11) |
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Halts and steps in growth strategies |
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117 | (3) |
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Some internal and external factors affecting growth and development |
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120 | (1) |
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Consequences of sex dimorphism for growth and development |
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121 | (1) |
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Factors and cues in growth patterns |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (2) |
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Chapter C.3 Alternatives to Continuous Development: to Stay and Adjust or Leave? |
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125 | (11) |
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Hibernation and aestivation |
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125 | (3) |
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128 | (4) |
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132 | (2) |
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Critical seasons: expectations and exceptions |
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134 | (2) |
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Chapter C.4 Single or Gregarious Living? Host Drivers and Taxon Dependence |
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136 | (12) |
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Penalties and payoffs of egg clustering: how often and how many? |
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137 | (3) |
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Costs and benefits at the larval stage: the aggregation-defence-signalling conundrum |
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140 | (7) |
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147 | (1) |
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Chapter C.5 Alternatives in Mating: When, How Often and for How Long? |
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148 | (17) |
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Protandry versus postandry: arriving too soon, too late, or both? |
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151 | (4) |
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Monandry versus polyandry: mating once or more often? |
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155 | (7) |
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Copulation time: short and often, or long and infrequent? |
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162 | (3) |
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Chapter C.6 Income or Capital Breeding: Invest Now and Pay Later, or Pay As You Go? |
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165 | (3) |
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Chapter C.7 Mechanisms for Survival: an Arsenal for all Occasions |
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168 | (11) |
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Trophic interactions and developmental stage vulnerability |
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168 | (2) |
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Eluding enemies: concealment, evasion and defence |
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170 | (4) |
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The anti-predator kit for life: change and compromise |
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174 | (5) |
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Chapter C.8 Mimicry: Honest and Dishonest Signals of Unpalatability |
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179 | (13) |
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Distinguishing types of mimicry |
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179 | (3) |
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Mullerian and Batesian mimicry: a continuum of deception |
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182 | (4) |
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The factor complex underlying defensive mimicry: a brief look at numbers |
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186 | (3) |
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The Batesian model: convergence of species, divergence of sexes |
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189 | (3) |
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Chapter C.9 Mechanisms Extending Survival into Exploitation |
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192 | (7) |
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Butterflies and ant enemy space; the bounds of associations |
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192 | (1) |
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Symbiosis and beyond in the ant-butterfly realm: the worm turns |
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193 | (2) |
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The impact of ant-butterfly associations on larval growth |
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195 | (1) |
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Ant-butterfly associations: evolutionary links and conundrums |
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195 | (4) |
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Chapter C.10 Adult Lifespan: the Implications of Living for Longer |
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199 | (4) |
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SECTION D BUTTERFLY BEHAVIOUR - INTERACTIVE ADJUSTMENTS IN THE HABITAT |
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203 | (104) |
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Chapter D.1 The Context and Dimensions for Observing Individual Behaviour |
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207 | (2) |
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Chapter D.2 Basking Modes, Heat and Water Balance: Adjustments to Abiotic Conditions |
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209 | (14) |
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Heating and cooling mechanisms in butterflies: basic systems limitations |
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211 | (3) |
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Wing surfaces in thermoregulation: consequences of selecting sides, angles and aspects |
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214 | (1) |
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Keeping cool and staying hot: using the environment's physical resources |
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215 | (5) |
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Warming up and keeping cool as a caterpillar |
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220 | (3) |
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Chapter D.3 Adult Feeding - Refuelling Strategies |
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223 | (10) |
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Fuelling up on alternative sources: flower power versus meat, mud, dung, sap and salts |
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225 | (1) |
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Feeding time: when, for how long, how often and on what? |
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225 | (1) |
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Choosing the right flower: large or small, clumped or single? |
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226 | (4) |
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Feeding at puddles: why do it with others? |
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230 | (3) |
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Chapter D.4 Mate Location and Courtship - Finding Suitable Mates |
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233 | (16) |
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What are the basic attributes of mate location systems? |
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233 | (2) |
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Drivers of the perch-patrol continuum: the uncertainties of interspecies fundamentals |
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235 | (3) |
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A choice for obtaining mates: whether to scramble about or sit put? |
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238 | (1) |
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The resource conundrum: when is a perch site not a resource? |
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239 | (2) |
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Territories: costs and benefits of defended space |
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241 | (3) |
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Leks: who gets on top, and why, when defence costs escalate? |
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244 | (1) |
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Hilltopping and peak performance: butterfly mountaineers scale the unpredictable |
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245 | (4) |
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Chapter D.5 Courtship - Doing the Business |
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249 | (8) |
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Cues as codes for successful mating: why the escalating complexity? |
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249 | (4) |
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Mate refusal: its development, breakdown and consequences |
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253 | (4) |
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Chapter D.6 Roost and Rest Sites - Taking a Break |
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257 | (9) |
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Meeting the demands of inertia |
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257 | (5) |
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Communal or single sleeping: benefits and consequences? |
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262 | (4) |
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Chapter D.7 Egg-laying - Unloading the Next Generation |
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266 | (8) |
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Egg release and placement: where and when? |
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268 | (2) |
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Egg avoidance and egg deterrence |
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270 | (2) |
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Individual variation in brood size: judging what is too few or too many |
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272 | (2) |
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Chapter D.8 Larval Feeding - Body Building under Duress |
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274 | (10) |
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Neonates: getting started and moving in a Brobdingnagian world |
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274 | (3) |
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Growth and shifts in behaviour |
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277 | (1) |
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Microcosms in space-time: shifting niches in feed-rest cycles |
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277 | (1) |
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When to feed and not to feed: dangers in development |
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278 | (2) |
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Butterfly larvae engineers |
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280 | (4) |
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Chapter D.9 Choosing Pupation Sites - Selecting Sites for the Final Transformation |
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284 | (6) |
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Trade-offs for pre-pupal wandering |
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284 | (2) |
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Site selection for the pupal environment |
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286 | (4) |
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Chapter D.10 Adult Anti-predator Behaviour - Life and Death in the Habitat |
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290 | (17) |
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Poison, palatability, posture and signalling: alternative strategies for surviving in the habitat |
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292 | (2) |
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The behavioural arsenal of deceit |
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294 | (1) |
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Wing eyes, spots and tails: evolutionary fingerprints of predator evasion |
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295 | (7) |
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Thanatosis: a final solution to remaining alive? |
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302 | (5) |
| Epilogue |
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307 | (10) |
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Key concepts for informed choices |
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307 | (2) |
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Bias: the bugbear of the natural sciences |
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309 | (1) |
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Complexity is in the nature of things |
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310 | (2) |
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Explanations: resource limitations and the research environment |
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312 | (1) |
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Butterfly science: the way ahead |
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313 | (4) |
| Glossary of Terms and Concepts |
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317 | (20) |
| Appendix: Symbols used in the text figures |
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337 | (8) |
| References |
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345 | (120) |
| Index |
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465 | |
