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Clathrate Hydrates, 2 Volumes: Molecular Science and Characterization [Kõva köide]

Edited by (National Research Council of Canada (NRC), Ottawa, Canada), Edited by (University of Ottawa, Canada)
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  • ISBN-10: 3527339841
  • ISBN-13: 9783527339846
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Clathrate Hydrates, 2 Volumes: Molecular Science and CharacterizationSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: Hardback, 832 pages, kõrgus x laius x paksus: 252x178x48 mm, kaal: 1882 g
  • Ilmumisaeg: 16-Mar-2022
  • Kirjastus: Blackwell Verlag GmbH
  • ISBN-10: 3527339841
  • ISBN-13: 9783527339846
Teised raamatud teemal:
Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9783527339846.html
Märksõnad:
Clathrate Hydrates All-inclusive reference on clathrate hydrates from a molecular perspective

Clathrate hydrates are crystalline water-based inclusion compounds many of which form at high pressures and low temperatures. Molecular science has provided the foundation for many areas of modern hydrate research and applications ranging from desalination processes to flow assurance in oil and gas pipelines.

Clathrate Hydrates provides detailed information on the molecular science aspects of hydrate research, covering the structural, compositional, spectroscopic, thermodynamic, and mechanical properties of clathrate hydrates as well as simulation methods and selected engineering applications. Edited and authored by recognized leaders in the field, this comprehensive resource introduces readers to clathrate hydrates and reviews the state-of-the-art of the field. In-depth chapters address different areas of specialization such as characterization of clathrate hydrates using NMR spectroscopy, infrared and Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray and neutron diffraction and scattering.





Highlights recent developments in clathrate hydrate research and applications such as natural gas recovery, desalination, and gas separation Reviews various molecular simulation methods for characterizing clathrate hydrates, including quantum mechanical calculations and Monte Carlo results Contains tables of known guest molecules, summaries of structural and physical properties, and different classes of clathrate hydrate phase equilibria Introduces unconventional guest-host interactions, related non-hydrate clathrates, and space-filling cages using the Frank-Kasper approach Covers the molecular motion of guest and host molecules and the relationship between cage geometry and guest dynamics Presents the rate and mechanisms of hydrate formation and decomposition from both macroscopic and microscopic points

Clathrate Hydrates: Molecular Science and Characterization is an indispensable reference for materials scientists, physical chemists, chemical engineers, geochemists, and graduate students in relevant areas of science and engineering.
Volume 1
Preface xiii
1 An Introduction to Clathrate Hydrate Science
1(26)
John A. Ripmeester
Soman Alavi
Christopher I. Ratdiffe
1.1 Introduction
1(3)
1.2 Selected Highlights of Clathrate Hydrate Science Research Up to the Present
4(6)
1.3 Clathrate Hydrate Research at the NRC Canada
10(11)
1.4 Contributors to NRC Clathrate Hydrate Research
21(2)
1.5 Review Articles and Books on Clathrate Hydrates
23(2)
1.6 Conference Proceedings
25(2)
1.6.1 Canadian Permafrost Conference
25(1)
1.6.2 Physics and Chemistry of Ice
25(1)
1.6.3 International Conference on Gas Hydrates (IGCH) Proceedings
26(1)
2 An Introduction to Clathrate Hydrates
27(38)
John A. Ripmeester
Soman Alavi
2.1 Introduction
27(1)
2.2 The First Gas Hydrates
28(6)
2.3 The Phase Rule
34(4)
2.4 De Forcrand and Villard -- Career Gas Hydrate Researchers
38(10)
2.5 Nikitin and von Stackelberg
48(2)
2.6 Solving the Gas Hydrate Puzzle
50(4)
2.7 Clathrate Hydrate Science -- A New Era
54(1)
2.8 Clathrate Hydrates in Engineering
54(1)
2.9 Clathrate Hydrates in Nature
55(1)
2.10 Summary and Observations
56(9)
References
57(8)
3 Classification of Clathrate Hydrates
65(58)
John A. Ripmeester
Satoshi Takeya
Saman Alavi
3.1 Introduction
65(1)
3.2 Hydrates as Clathrates
65(1)
3.3 Clathrate and Related Hydrates - Guest Chemistry
66(6)
3.4 The Canonical Clathrate Hydrates
72(13)
3.4.1 Polyhedra and Filling Three-Dimensional Space
73(2)
3.4.2 Filling the Polyhedra
75(10)
3.5 Phase Equilibria
85(12)
3.5.1 Simple Hydrates
85(5)
3.5.2 Double and Mixed Hydrates, Natural Gas Hydrates
90(7)
3.6 Tabulation of Hydrate Properties
97(1)
3.6.1 Simple Clathrate Hydrates
97(1)
3.6.2 CS-II (sII) Double Hydrates (Guests that Require a Help Gas for Stability)
98(1)
3.6.3 HS-III (sH) Hydrate Guests
98(1)
3.7 Summary
98(25)
References
98(25)
4 Synthesis of Clathrate Hydrates
123(18)
John A. Ripmeester
Saman Alavi
4.1 Introduction
123(1)
4.2 General Considerations in the Synthesis of Clathrate Hydrates
123(2)
4.2.1 A Complex Process
123(1)
4.2.2 Air Entrainment
124(1)
4.3 Synthesis of Hydrates with Water-Soluble Guests Near Ambient Conditions
125(1)
4.3.1 Hydrates with Congruent Melting Points
125(1)
4.3.2 Hydrates with Incongruent Melting Points
125(1)
4.4 Synthesis of Hydrates of Guests with Low Solubility in Water
126(2)
4.4.1 Low-Pressure Methods: Water--Liquid Guest and Water-Gaseous Guest Reactions
126(1)
4.4.2 Powdered Ice Reactions with Liquid or Gaseous Guests
127(1)
4.5 Synthesis of Clathrate Hydrates of Strongly Hydrated or Reactive Guests
128(1)
4.6 Pure Hydrates -- Kinetic and Thermodynamic Control
128(3)
4.7 High-Pressure Reactors
131(3)
4.7.1 Stirred Reactors
131(1)
4.7.2 Stationary (Non-stirred) Reactors
131(1)
4.7.3 Other Setups for Hydrate Synthesis - Bubble Columns, Spray Reactors
131(3)
4.8 Synthesis of Single Crystals
134(3)
4.9 Summary
137(4)
References
138(3)
5 Structures of Canonical Clathrate Hydrates
141(48)
John A. Ripmeester
Satoshi Takeya
Soman Atavi
5.1 Introduction
141(1)
5.2 The Canonical Clathrate Hydrates
141(27)
5.2.1 General Structural Properties
141(6)
5.2.2 Geometry of Unit Cells and Cages: CS-I, CS-II, and HS-III
147(1)
5.2.2.1 Structural Features CS-I, CS-II, and HS-III Clathrate Hydrates
147(4)
5.2.2.2 Correlation of Guest Size with Unit Cell Dimensions
151(1)
5.2.2.3 Flexible Guest Molecules Showing Conformational Isomerism
152(1)
5.2.2.4 Location of Guest Molecules in the Cages
153(5)
5.2.2.5 Effects of Hydrogen Bonding on Cage Structure and Guest-Water Interactions
158(2)
5.2.2.6 Halogen-Water Interactions in Clathrate Hydrates (Chlorine)
160(1)
5.2.2.7 Polymorphism
161(3)
5.2.3 Geometry of Unit Cell and Cages: Tetragonal Bromine Hydrate (TS-I)
164(1)
5.2.4 Geometry of Unit Cell and Cages: Dimethyl Ether Hydrate (TrS-I)
165(1)
5.2.5 Geometry of Unit Cell and Cages: Xe Hydrate (HS-I)
166(2)
5.3 Some General Structural Considerations
168(21)
5.3.1 Tiling in Three-Dimensional Space -- Frank-Kasper and Weaire-Phelan Polyhedra
168(9)
5.3.2 Schlegel Diagrams
177(1)
5.3.3 Polytypism
178(1)
5.3.3.1 Hydrate Structures as Layered Polytypes
178(3)
5.3.4 Materials with Structural Features in Common with Clathrate Hydrates
181(1)
References
182(7)
6 Structures of Noncanonical Clathrates and Related Hydrates
189(30)
John A. Ripmeester
Satoshi Takeya
Soman Alavi
6.1 Introduction
189(1)
6.2 Amine Hydrates
189(5)
6.3 Ionic Clathrate Hydrates
194(25)
6.3.1 Salt Hydrates
194(1)
6.3.1.1 Salt Hydrates -- Cations as Large Cage Guests
194(5)
6.3.1.2 Salt Hydrates -- Cations as Large Cage Guests, Neutral Small Cage Guests
199(2)
6.3.1.3 Salt Hydrates -- Cations as Small-Cage Guests
201(1)
6.3.2 Hydrates of Strong Acids
202(2)
6.3.3 Hydrates of Strong Bases
204(5)
6.3.4 Ionic Clathrate Hydrates with Heterogeneous Frameworks
209(1)
6.3.5 Clathrates with H2O--NH4F Solid Solution Frameworks
209(2)
References
211(8)
7 Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics of Clathrate Hydrates
219(64)
John A. Ripmeester
Saman Alavi
7.1 Introduction
219(1)
7.2 Clathrate Hydration Numbers and Cage Occupancies
219(12)
7.2.1 Direct Measurement of Hydration Numbers
220(8)
7.2.2 Thermodynamic Methods to Determine Guest Occupancy
228(1)
7.2.2.1 The Clapeyron and Clausius-Clapeyron Equations and the Use of Phase Equilibria
228(2)
7.2.2.2 The Miller-Strong Method and Effects of Solutes on Phase Equilibria
230(1)
7.2.2.3 Calorimetry and Other Instrumental Methods in Conjunction with Thermodynamic Methods
230(1)
7.3 Enthalpy of Dissociation of Hydrate Phases
231(1)
7.4 Statistical Mechanics of Clathrate Hydrates: The van der Waals-Platteeuw Solid Solution Model for Clathrate Hydrate Formation
232(5)
7.5 Application of the van der Waals-Platteeuw Theory to Determining Hydrate Equilibrium Composition
237(10)
7.5.1 Using van der Waals-Platteeuw Theory to Determine Cage Occupancies
237(2)
7.5.2 Instrumental Methods in Conjunction with the van der Waals-Platteeuw Theory to Determine Occupation Fractions
239(1)
7.5.2.1 Solid-State NMR
240(3)
7.5.2.2 Raman Spectroscopy
243(1)
7.5.2.3 Diffraction Methods
243(3)
7.5.3 Some General Conclusions and Nonstoichiometry of Clathrate Hydrates
246(1)
7.6 Computational Predictions of Hydrate Dissociation Pressures Using the van der Waals--Platteeuw Theory
247(7)
7.7 Extensions of the van der Waals--Platteeuw Theory
254(4)
7.7.1 Multiple Cage Occupancies and Guest Mixtures
254(1)
7.7.2 Relaxing Some Position Restraints on Cage Water Molecules
255(1)
7.7.3 Relaxing the Constraint of Constant Volume on the Hydrate Phase
255(3)
7.7 A Validity of the Basic van der Waals--Platteeuw Theory
258(2)
7.8 Other Thermodynamic Topics
260(11)
7.8.1 Encagement Enthalpy
260(3)
7.8.2 Thermodynamic Inhibitors to Hydrate Formation
263(2)
7.8.3 Compositional Tuning in Clathrate Hydrates
265(1)
7.8.4 Transitions Between Binary CS-II and HS-III Binary Hydrates to Pure CS-I Hydrates for Small Guest Molecules
266(4)
7.8.5 A Lower Critical Decomposition Temperature
270(1)
7.9 Conclusions
271(12)
References
272(11)
Volume 2
Preface xv
8 Molecular Simulations of Clathrate Hydrates
283(86)
Saman Alavi
John A. Ripmeester
8.1 Introduction
283(1)
8.2 Molecular Simulations
284(11)
8.2.1 Classical Molecular Dynamics Simulations
284(3)
8.2.2 Monte Carlo Simulations of Clathrate Hydrates
287(1)
8.2.3 Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics Simulations
288(1)
8.2.4 Classical Interaction Potentials for Simulating Clathrate Hydrates
289(4)
8.2.5 Proton Arrangements in the Clathrate Hydrate Simulations
293(2)
8.3 Structural Characterization of Clathrate Hydrates with Simulations
295(13)
8.3.1 Radial Distribution Functions
296(2)
8.3.2 Lattice Constants and Three-Phase Equilibrium Lines
298(1)
8.3.3 Guest Distribution and Structure in Cages
299(3)
8.3.4 Order Parameters and Characterization of Clathrate Hydrate, Ice, and Water Phases
302(5)
8.3.5 Guest-Host Hydrogen Bonding in Clathrate Hydrate Cages
307(1)
8.4 Dynamic Characterizations of Guest Motion in Cages
308(3)
8.4.1 Velocity and Orientation Autocorrelation Functions
309(2)
8.5 Simulations of Clathrate Hydrates
311(23)
8.5.1 Mechanisms of Hydrate Decomposition, Nucleation, and Growth
312(19)
8.5.2 Enthalpy of Formation, Decomposition, and Encagement from Molecular Simulations
331(3)
8.6 Ab Initio Quantum Mechanical Calculations of Clathrate Hydrates
334(7)
8.6.1 Stationary Quantum States of Small Guests in Cages
335(5)
8.6.2 Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics
340(1)
8.7 Conclusions and Outlook
341(28)
References
342(27)
9 X-ray and Neutron Diffraction and Scattering of Clathrate Hydrates
369(48)
John S. Tse
Dennis D. Klug
Satoshi Takeya
9.1 Introduction
369(1)
9.2 Crystallography and X-ray Diffraction
370(5)
9.2.1 Comments on Diffraction as Applied to Hydrate Structure Determination
373(1)
9.2.1.1 Single-Crystal Diffraction
373(1)
9.2.1.2 Powder Diffraction
374(1)
9.3 Instrumentation
375(4)
9.4 Structural Characterization with Diffraction Methods
379(11)
9.4.1 Diffraction and Structure-Guest Size Relationship
380(4)
9.4.2 Unconventional Applications of Diffraction
384(6)
9.5 Neutron Diffraction or Elastic Neutron Scattering
390(6)
9.6 Inelastic Neutron Scattering
396(4)
9.7 Inelastic X-ray Scattering
400(7)
9.8 Summary
407(10)
References
407(10)
10 Characterization of Clathrate Hydrates Using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
417(50)
Christopher I. Ratcliffe
Igor L. Moudrakovski
John A. Ripmeester
10.1 Introduction
417(1)
10.2 NMR Interactions
418(9)
10.2.1 The Zeeman Interaction
418(2)
10.2.2 Other Interactions
420(1)
10.2.2.1 The Shielding Interaction (σ) and Chemical Shift (δ)
420(3)
10.2.2.2 The Nuclear Dipole--Dipole Interaction
423(1)
10.2.2.3 The Spin--Spin J-Coupling Interaction
424(1)
10.2.2.4 The Quadrupolar Coupling Interaction
424(3)
10.2.2.5 The Spin--Rotation Coupling Interaction
427(1)
10.2.2.6 Interactions with Unpaired Electrons
427(1)
10.2.3 Units
427(1)
10.3 Experimental Aspects of NMR Spectroscopy
427(3)
10.3.1 The Basic NMR Experiment
427(1)
10.3.2 Techniques for Enhancing Sensitivity and Resolution
428(1)
10.3.2.1 Dipolar Decoupling
428(1)
10.3.2.2 Magic Angle Spinning, MAS
429(1)
10.3.2.3 Cross-Polarization (CP)
430(1)
10.3.2.4 Hyperpolarization of 129Xe (HP Xe)
430(1)
10.4 The Development of NMR Techniques Over Time
430(2)
10.5 NMR Powder Line Shapes in Clathrate Hydrates
432(35)
10.5.1 Dipolar Line Shapes
432(1)
10.5.1.1 Magnetic Dilution
432(1)
10.5.1.2 Two-Spin Systems
432(1)
10.5.1.3 Three-Spin Systems
433(1)
10.5.1.4 Four-Spin Systems
434(1)
10.5.1.5 Six-Spin Systems
434(2)
10.5.1.6 Multi-Spin Systems
436(1)
10.5.1.7 Effects of Paramagnetic Oxygen on 1H Line Shapes
436(1)
10.5.2 Chemical Shift Line Shapes
437(1)
10.5.2.1 129Xe NMR
437(7)
10.5.2.2 Chemical Shift Line Shapes of Other Nuclei: 77Se, 31P, 19F, 13C
444(2)
10.5.3 Quadrupolar Line Shapes
446(1)
10.5.3.1 Spin 1: Deuterium 2H
446(4)
10.5.3.2 Half-Integer Quadrupolar Nuclei (131Xe, 83Kr, 33S, 170)
450(8)
References
458(9)
11 Specialized Methods of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Applied to Characterization of Clathrate Hydrates
467(1)
Igor L. Moudrakovski
Christopher I. Ratdiffe
John A. Ripmeester
111 Introduction
467(46)
11.2 13C MAS NMR in Compositional and Structural Analysis of Gas Hydrates
468(14)
11.2.1 Experimental Considerations
468(2)
11.2.2 Overview of 13C MAS NMR in Clathrate Hydrates
470(12)
11.2.3 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
482(1)
11.3 129Xe NMR Applications: Other Topics
482(4)
11.3.1 Transient/Metastable Phases
482(1)
11.3.2 Rapid Scanning of the Formation of CS-I Xe Hydrate from Ice with Hyperpolarized Xe
483(2)
11.3.3 Annealing of Co-deposits of Xe and H2O
485(1)
11.3.4 H2O-NH4F Solid Solution Frameworks
485(1)
11.4 Ionic Hydrates
486(3)
11.4.1 Hydrates of Alkylammonium Salts
486(1)
11.4.2 Hydrates of Strong Acids
487(1)
11.4.3 Hydrates of Strong Bases
487(2)
11.5 Clathrate Hydrates and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
489(24)
11.5.1 Information About Gas Hydrates Accessible by Magnetic Resonance Imaging
490(3)
11.5.2 Experimental Conditions and Equipment for MRI in Gas Hydrates
493(2)
11.5.3 Overview of Current MRI Applications in Gas Hydrate Research
495(7)
11.5.4 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
502(1)
References
503(10)
12 Reorientation and Diffusion in Clathrate Hydrates
513(56)
John A. Ripmeester
Christopher I. Ratcliffe
Igor L. Moudrakovski
Saman Alavi
12.1 Introduction
513(1)
12.2 Early Work on Clathrates/Inclusion Compounds
514(1)
12.3 Dynamics
515(10)
12.3.1 Dynamics and Timescales
515(1)
12.3.2 Dielectric Relaxation
516(3)
12.3.3 NMR Spectroscopy
519(1)
12.3.3.1 Nuclear Dipolar Coupling
519(3)
12.3.3.2 Nuclear Quadrupolar Interactions
522(2)
12.3.3.3 Chemical Shift Line shapes
524(1)
12.4 Water Dynamics in Ice and Clathrate Hydrates
525(9)
12.4.1 Water Dynamics in Ice Ih
525(3)
12.4.2 Water Dynamics in Clathrate Hydrates
528(6)
12.5 Guest Motions
534(23)
12.5.1 Guest Reorientation: General Considerations
534(2)
12.5.1.1 Reorientation of Spherical Top Guest Molecules
536(3)
12.5.1.2 Reorientation of Symmetric Top Guest Molecules
539(5)
12.5.1.3 Reorientation of Asymmetric Top Guest Molecules
544(6)
12.5.2 Diffusion
550(4)
12.5.3 Nonclassical Dynamics
554(1)
12.5.3.1 Methyl Groups
554(2)
12.5.3.2 Dynamics of Light Tetrahedral Molecules
556(1)
12.6 Summary
557(12)
References
559(10)
13 IR and Raman Spectroscopy of Clathrate Hydrates
569(62)
Tsutomu Uchida
Amadeu K. Sum
13.1 Fundamentals and Quantification
570(7)
13.2 IR Spectroscopy of Clathrate Hydrates
577(4)
13.2.1 Far IR Transmission - FT-IR on Vapor-Deposited Thin Films
577(1)
13.2.2 Recent Studies of Clathrate Hydrates Using IR Spectroscopy
578(3)
13.3 Raman Spectroscopy of Clathrate Hydrates
581(24)
13.3.1 Guest Molecule Information
582(1)
13.3.1.1 Detection of Encapsulation
582(3)
13.3.1.2 Quantification of Raman Peak Positions
585(3)
13.3.1.3 Quantification of Cage Occupancy
588(3)
13.3.1.4 Application of Raman Spectroscopy to Kinetic Processes
591(2)
13.3.1.5 Analysis of Natural Hydrate Samples
593(3)
13.3.2 Noncontact, Non-destructive Measurements of Gas Hydrates Via Visible Light
596(1)
13.3.2.1 Application of Raman Spectroscopy to Clathrate Hydrate Kinetic Studies
596(4)
13.3.2.2 Gas Hydrate Phases Obtained under High-Pressure Conditions
600(5)
13.3.2.3 In Situ Analysis of Natural Hydrate Sample Under Deep Sea Condition
605(1)
13.4 Conclusions
605(26)
References
614(17)
14 Kinetics of Clathrate Hydrate Processes
631(86)
Peter Englezos
Saman Alavi
John A. Ripmeester
14.1 Introduction
631(1)
14.2 Experimental Measurement of Hydrate Process Rates
631(14)
14.2.1 Kinetics -- Gas Uptake Measurements
631(2)
14.2.2 Kinetics of CS-1 and CS-II hydrates
633(3)
14.2.3 Kinetics of HS-III Hydrates
636(1)
14.2.4 Kinetics Measurements -- Other Methods
637(4)
14.2.5 Average and Spatially Localized Kinetics
641(4)
14.3 Modeling the Kinetics of Hydrate Nucleation
645(15)
14.3.1 Hydrate Formation
645(2)
14.3.2 Homogeneous Nucleation
647(5)
14.3.3 Heterogeneous Nucleation
652(3)
14.3.4 Validity and Relevance of Classical Nucleation Theory
655(5)
14.4 Hydrate Phase Transformations
660(18)
14.4.1 Hydrate Growth from Water
660(4)
14.4.2 Hydrate Growth from Ice
664(1)
14.4.2.1 The Shrinking Core Model
665(2)
14.4.2.2 The Avrami Equation
667(6)
14.4.3 Hydrate Crystal Morphology
673(3)
14.4.4 Hydrate Decomposition
676(2)
14.5 Metastability
678(2)
14.6 Kinetic Modifiers
680(10)
14.6.1 Surfactants
680(2)
14.6.2 Defect Generation in the Hydrogen-Bonded Ice and Hydrate Lattices
682(1)
14.6.3 Kinetic Hydrate Inhibitors
683(1)
14.6.3.1 Macroscopic Descriptions of Hydrate Inhibition
683(1)
14.6.3.2 Mechanism of Kinetic Inhibition
684(4)
14.6.3.3 Complexities of the Hydrate Inhibition Process
688(2)
14.7 Molecular Simulations of Clathrate Hydrate Nucleation and Growth
690(7)
14.7.1 Simulations of Heterogeneous Nucleation
691(1)
14.7.2 Molecular Simulations of Homogeneous Nucleation
692(3)
14.7.3 Simulations of Hydrate Growth
695(1)
14.7.4 Simulations of Hydrate Growth and Decomposition in the Presence of Inhibitors
696(1)
14.8 Concluding Remarks
697(20)
References
698(19)
15 Mechanical and Thermal Transport Properties of Clathrate Hydrates
717(32)
John S. Tse
Dennis D. Klug
15.1 Introduction
717(1)
15.2 Theoretical Background
718(3)
15.2.1 Elastic Moduli
718(2)
15.2.2 Thermal Conductivity
720(1)
15.3 Mechanical Properties: Acoustic Velocity and Elastic Constants
721(9)
15.4 Thermal Expansion
730(4)
15.5 Transport Properties: Thermal Conductivity
734(5)
15.6 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Thermal Properties of Clathrate Hydrates
739(3)
15.7 Summary
742(7)
References
743(6)
16 Applications of Clathrate (Gas) Hydrates
749(34)
Peter Englezos
16.1 Introduction
749(1)
16.2 Flow Assurance in Oil and Gas Pipelines
750(5)
16.2.1 Large-Scale Flow Loops
753(1)
16.2.2 Catastrophic Hydrate Formation and Pipeline Plug Potential
754(1)
16.2.3 Oil and Gas Pipelines with Hydrophobic Surfaces
754(1)
16.3 Natural Gas Energy Recovery from the Earth's Hydrates
755(3)
16.3.1 Extraction of Natural Gas by Injection of CO2 or CO2/N2 Flue Gas
757(1)
16.4 Desalination
758(1)
16.5 Concentration of Wastewater and Aqueous Organic Solutions
759(1)
16.6 Storage and Transportation of Natural Gas, Hydrogen, and Other Materials
760(5)
16.6.1 Natural Gas Storage
760(2)
16.6.2 Hydrogen Storage
762(3)
16.7 Gas Separations
765(7)
16.7.1 Metrics
766(1)
16.7.2 Separation of CO2 from Flue Gas Mixtures (Post-Combustion Capture)
767(1)
16.7.2.1 Impact of SO2
768(1)
16.7.3 Separation of CO2 from Fuel Gas Mixtures (Pre-Combustion Capture)
768(3)
16.7.4 Other Gas Separations
771(1)
16.8 Conclusions
772(11)
References
772(11)
Index 783
John A. Ripmeester is Principal Research Officer (retired), Steacie Institute for Molecular Sciences, National Research Council of Canada (NRC), Ottawa, Canada. He has more than fifty years of research experience in clathrates and inclusion compounds, porous materials, supramolecular materials, materials characterization, and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and the author or co-author of more than 750 journal and conference papers.

Saman Alavi is an Adjunct Professor at the Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, in Ottawa, Canada. He is the author of more than 150 journal and conference papers. Dr. Alavi's current research activities center on simulations of clathrate hydrate materials.