| Introduction |
|
xix | |
| User Guide |
|
xxiii | |
| Suggested References |
|
xxv | |
| Section I Specific Information |
|
1 | (350) |
|
|
|
3 | (6) |
|
|
|
3 | (1) |
|
Differentiating by Energy Source |
|
|
3 | (1) |
|
|
|
4 | (1) |
|
|
|
4 | (1) |
|
|
|
4 | (1) |
|
|
|
5 | (1) |
|
|
|
5 | (1) |
|
EUI Adjustment for Occupancy |
|
|
6 | (1) |
|
Energy End Use Distribution |
|
|
6 | (1) |
|
Energy End Use Variations Over Time |
|
|
7 | (1) |
|
Energy Cost as a Percent of Total Operating Cost |
|
|
7 | (1) |
|
Limitations of Using Benchmark Data |
|
|
8 | (1) |
|
Chapter 2 Analyzing Energy Use Graphs |
|
|
9 | (16) |
|
|
|
9 | (1) |
|
|
|
9 | (3) |
|
|
|
12 | (3) |
|
|
|
15 | (3) |
|
|
|
18 | (2) |
|
Business Volume (Production Rates) |
|
|
20 | (2) |
|
|
|
22 | (3) |
|
Chapter 3 Energy Saving Opportunities by Business Type |
|
|
25 | (44) |
|
|
|
25 | (1) |
|
|
|
26 | (13) |
|
Apartment Buildings/Multi-Family/Dormitories |
|
|
39 | (2) |
|
|
|
41 | (1) |
|
|
|
42 | (1) |
|
Education-Colleges and Universities |
|
|
42 | (2) |
|
|
|
44 | (2) |
|
Food Sales-Grocery Stores |
|
|
46 | (1) |
|
|
|
47 | (3) |
|
|
|
50 | (2) |
|
|
|
52 | (1) |
|
|
|
53 | (1) |
|
|
|
54 | (1) |
|
|
|
55 | (3) |
|
|
|
58 | (1) |
|
|
|
59 | (2) |
|
|
|
61 | (2) |
|
|
|
63 | (1) |
|
|
|
64 | (2) |
|
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
|
|
66 | (1) |
|
|
|
67 | (1) |
|
|
|
67 | (1) |
|
Variable Air Volume Systems |
|
|
68 | (1) |
|
Chapter 4 Manufacturing and Unit Operations |
|
|
69 | (36) |
|
|
|
69 | (1) |
|
Common Themes in Approaching Process Efficiency |
|
|
70 | (1) |
|
|
|
71 | (2) |
|
|
|
73 | (9) |
|
|
|
82 | (1) |
|
|
|
82 | (1) |
|
Process-Related Shared Systems |
|
|
83 | (2) |
|
Building Services Energy Use |
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
Reviewing Coincidence of Activities |
|
|
85 | (2) |
|
Reviewing the Process Itself |
|
|
87 | (6) |
|
Desire for Energy Use to Follow Production Rates |
|
|
93 | (1) |
|
Primary Energy Use Sources |
|
|
93 | (1) |
|
|
|
93 | (1) |
|
|
|
94 | (1) |
|
|
|
94 | (1) |
|
Some Common ECMs for Manufacturing |
|
|
95 | (4) |
|
Specific Light Manufacturing ECMs by Process |
|
|
99 | (6) |
|
Chapter 5 ECM Descriptions |
|
|
105 | (52) |
|
ECM Descriptions-Envelope |
|
|
105 | (4) |
|
ECM Descriptions-Lighting |
|
|
109 | (1) |
|
|
|
110 | (22) |
|
ECM Descriptions-Boilers and District Heating |
|
|
132 | (8) |
|
ECM Descriptions-Swimming Pools |
|
|
140 | (2) |
|
ECM Descriptions-Heat Recovery |
|
|
142 | (4) |
|
ECM Descriptions-Thermal Storage (TES) |
|
|
146 | (4) |
|
ECM Descriptions-Electrical |
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
ECM Descriptions-Compressed Air |
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
|
|
151 | (6) |
|
Chapter 6 Utility Rate Components |
|
|
157 | (8) |
|
|
|
157 | (5) |
|
|
|
162 | (3) |
|
Chapter 7 Automatic Control Strategies |
|
|
165 | (40) |
|
|
|
165 | (1) |
|
Cost/Benefit Ratio for Control System EMCs |
|
|
166 | (1) |
|
Control System Application Notes |
|
|
166 | (3) |
|
Lighting Control Strategies-Basic |
|
|
169 | (1) |
|
HVAC Control Strategies-Basic |
|
|
170 | (27) |
|
Lighting Control Strategies-Advanced |
|
|
197 | (1) |
|
HVAC Control Strategies-Advanced |
|
|
198 | (6) |
|
Other Ways to Leverage DDC Controls |
|
|
204 | (1) |
|
Control System Calibration |
|
|
204 | (1) |
|
Chapter 8 Building Operations and Maintenance |
|
|
205 | (22) |
|
|
|
205 | (3) |
|
Closing a Facility for Part of a Week |
|
|
208 | (1) |
|
Closing a Portion of a Facility for Extended Periods |
|
|
208 | (1) |
|
|
|
209 | (1) |
|
|
|
209 | (1) |
|
Poor Indoor Comfort and Indoor Air Quality Costs |
|
|
209 | (1) |
|
|
|
210 | (1) |
|
Maintenance Energy Benefits |
|
|
211 | (8) |
|
Heat Exchanger Approach Diagrams |
|
|
219 | (8) |
|
Chapter 9 Quantifying Savings |
|
|
227 | (120) |
|
|
|
227 | (1) |
|
|
|
228 | (3) |
|
Bin Weather Used to Estimate Load Profile and ECM Savings |
|
|
231 | (2) |
|
Equipment Efficiency Profiles |
|
|
233 | (1) |
|
Rough Estimating Envelope Improvement Savings |
|
|
234 | (2) |
|
Establishing the HVAC Load Profile |
|
|
236 | (5) |
|
Adjusting the HVAC Load Profile for Humid Climates |
|
|
241 | (5) |
|
Adjusting the HVAC Load Profile for Overlapping Heating and Cooling |
|
|
246 | (2) |
|
Sample Savings Calculations |
|
|
248 | (1) |
|
Load-following Air and Water Flows vs. Constant Flow (VSD Benefit) |
|
|
249 | (5) |
|
Supply Air Reset vs. Reheat-Constant Volume |
|
|
254 | (4) |
|
Supply Air Reset with VAV vs. Increased Fan Energy |
|
|
258 | (6) |
|
Condenser Water Reset vs. Constant Temperature |
|
|
264 | (6) |
|
Chilled Water Reset for Variable Pumping vs. Increased Pump Energy |
|
|
270 | (3) |
|
Water-Side Economizer vs. Chiller Cooling |
|
|
273 | (9) |
|
Higher Efficiency Lighting vs. Existing Lighting |
|
|
282 | (3) |
|
Higher Efficiency Motors vs. Existing Motors |
|
|
285 | (4) |
|
Higher Efficiency Chiller vs. Existing Chiller |
|
|
289 | (2) |
|
Higher Efficiency Boiler vs. Existing Boiler |
|
|
291 | (2) |
|
Hot Water Reset from Outside Air vs. Constant Temperature |
|
|
293 | (4) |
|
Reduce Air System Friction Losses-Constant Volume |
|
|
297 | (3) |
|
Automatic Control Savings Examples |
|
|
300 | (20) |
|
Computer Modeling/Simulating Energy Use |
|
|
320 | (11) |
|
Measurement and Verification (M&V) |
|
|
331 | (15) |
|
Macro Baselines-for Goals and Projections |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
Chapter 10 Sustaining Savings |
|
|
347 | (4) |
|
Tendency for Initial Savings to Deteriorate |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
Maintaining Initial Savings |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
Checklist for service access and operations |
|
|
348 | (3) |
| Section II General Information |
|
351 | (586) |
|
Chapter 11 Mechanical Systems |
|
|
353 | (64) |
|
|
|
353 | (1) |
|
|
|
354 | (6) |
|
Water-Cooled vs. Air-Cooled- |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
Single Pass Mechanical Systems |
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
Oil-Less Refrigeration Technology |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
Hermetic Motor Energy Penalty |
|
|
361 | |
|
Thermal Energy Transport Notes |
|
|
360 | (3) |
|
|
|
363 | (2) |
|
Part Load Chilled Water System Performance |
|
|
365 | (6) |
|
Cooling Towers and Evaporative Fluid Coolers |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
Electronic Expansion Valves |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
Air and Water Circulating System Resistance |
|
|
373 | (2) |
|
Fan/Pump Motor Work Equation |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
Fan and Pump Efficiencies |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
Thermal Balance Concept for Buildings |
|
|
376 | (6) |
|
|
|
382 | (4) |
|
Cooling Energy Balance for Heat Producing Equipment |
|
|
386 | (2) |
|
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
Kitchen Hoods and Make-Up Air |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
|
|
389 | (9) |
|
|
|
398 | (2) |
|
|
|
400 | (6) |
|
|
|
406 | (1) |
|
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
|
|
407 | (6) |
|
|
|
413 | (1) |
|
Simultaneous Heating and Cooling |
|
|
414 | (3) |
|
Chapter 12 Motors and Electrical Information |
|
|
417 | (14) |
|
Full Load Motor Efficiency |
|
|
417 | (2) |
|
Part Load Motor Efficiency-Constant Speed |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Part Load Motor Efficiency-Variable Speed |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Effect of Voltage Changes on Induction Motor Characteristics |
|
|
420 | (1) |
|
|
|
420 | (3) |
|
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
Common Motor Design Characteristics |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
|
|
424 | (1) |
|
Fractional Horsepower Motors |
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
|
|
426 | (3) |
|
|
|
429 | (2) |
|
Chapter 13 Combustion Equipment and Systems |
|
|
431 | (22) |
|
|
|
431 | (1) |
|
|
|
432 | (6) |
|
Boiler Heating Output When Only Heating Surface Area is Known |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
Boiler StandBy Heat Loss (Boiler Skin Loss) |
|
|
438 | (2) |
|
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
Savings from Various Boiler Improvements |
|
|
441 | (3) |
|
Pilot Light Fuel Consumption |
|
|
444 | (1) |
|
Natural Draft Flue-Dilution Air |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
Savings from Steam System Improvements |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
Flue Gas Recoverable Heat |
|
|
448 | (2) |
|
Savings from Reducing Excess Air |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
Generator Fuel Consumption |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
|
|
451 | (2) |
|
Chapter 14 Compressed Air |
|
|
453 | (42) |
|
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Overall Efficiency of Compressed Air |
|
|
453 | (2) |
|
Standard SCFM vs. Actual ACFM |
|
|
455 | (5) |
|
|
|
460 | (2) |
|
|
|
462 | (4) |
|
Compressor Capacity Control |
|
|
466 | (7) |
|
|
|
473 | (3) |
|
|
|
476 | (3) |
|
Pressure Drop from Friction in Piping |
|
|
479 | (8) |
|
|
|
487 | (3) |
|
|
|
490 | (5) |
|
Chapter 15 Fan and Pump Drives |
|
|
495 | (22) |
|
Fan/Pump Capacity Modulation Methods |
|
|
495 | (5) |
|
|
|
500 | (1) |
|
|
|
501 | (2) |
|
Variable Speed Drive Considerations |
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
Best Efficiency Point (BEP) |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
Pump/Fan Curve Characteristics |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
VSD Savings: Square Instead of Cube |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
Affinity Law Application Where Static Head is Involved |
|
|
507 | (6) |
|
Savings Impact When Controlling to a Constant Downstream Pressure-VAV and Variable Pumping |
|
|
513 | (1) |
|
Savings from Lowering Downstream Maintained Pressure Setting |
|
|
514 | (3) |
|
|
|
517 | (18) |
|
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
|
|
519 | (2) |
|
Lighting Technology Properties |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
|
|
522 | (4) |
|
Lighting Energy Use, Pct of Total Electric, by Building Type |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
Lighting Hours by Building Type |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
Typical Recommended Lighting Levels |
|
|
527 | (2) |
|
|
|
529 | (1) |
|
Occupancy Sensor Energy Savings |
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
Lighting Impacts on HVAC Use by Climate |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
Lighting Power Budget Values Watts/SF |
|
|
533 | (2) |
|
Chapter 17 Envelope Information |
|
|
535 | (26) |
|
|
|
535 | (5) |
|
R-Value Reduction from Stud Walls |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
|
|
540 | (5) |
|
|
|
545 | (2) |
|
Air Flow Created from Building Stack Effect |
|
|
547 | (3) |
|
Air Flow Through Open Dock Doors |
|
|
550 | (6) |
|
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
Composite U-values for Envelope Evaluation |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
Percent Skylight/Clerestory Effect on Overall Gross Roof Insulation U-value |
|
|
558 | (3) |
|
Chapter 18 Domestic Water Heating |
|
|
561 | (4) |
|
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
Domestic Water Heater Standby Losses |
|
|
562 | (3) |
|
|
|
565 | (6) |
|
|
|
565 | (1) |
|
|
|
566 | (1) |
|
Weather Data by Days and Times |
|
|
567 | (4) |
|
Chapter 20 Pollution and Greenhouse Gases |
|
|
571 | (4) |
|
Pollution-Emission Conversion Factors by State |
|
|
571 | (2) |
|
Pollution-Conversion to Equivalent Number of Automobiles |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
Other Environmental Considerations |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
|
|
575 | (32) |
|
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Energy Transport (Circulating Water and Air) |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
|
|
579 | (2) |
|
HVAC Formulas and Conversions |
|
|
581 | (1) |
|
|
|
582 | (2) |
|
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
|
|
584 | (2) |
|
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
Properties of Air, Water, Ice |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
Specific Heat of Air and Water |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
Heating Values of Common Fuels |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
|
587 | (3) |
|
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
|
|
591 | (2) |
|
Fuel Switching- Electric Resistance Heat vs. Combustion Heat |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
Heat Pump-Approximate COP from High/Low Region Temperatures |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
Heat Pump-Approximate kW Power from COP |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
|
|
595 | (3) |
|
|
|
598 | (6) |
|
Metric Conversion Factors |
|
|
604 | (3) |
|
Chapter 22 Water Efficiency |
|
|
607 | (90) |
|
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
Water Technology Compared to Energy Technology |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
|
|
610 | (3) |
|
|
|
613 | (2) |
|
|
|
615 | (2) |
|
|
|
617 | (4) |
|
|
|
621 | (6) |
|
Process Water Purification |
|
|
627 | (26) |
|
Water Efficiency for Mechanical Cooling Systems |
|
|
653 | (11) |
|
|
|
664 | (3) |
|
Domestic Hot and Cold Water Systems |
|
|
667 | (2) |
|
Water Reuse Opportunities |
|
|
669 | (10) |
|
Potable Water Substitutes |
|
|
679 | (3) |
|
|
|
682 | (13) |
|
Appendix A: Consumptive Use |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
Appendix B: Embedded Energy in Water and Waste Water |
|
|
695 | (2) |
|
Chapter 23 Using Feedback for Energy Management |
|
|
697 | (32) |
|
|
|
698 | (1) |
|
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
Obstacles to Behavior Savings |
|
|
700 | (2) |
|
Behavior Choices and Feedback |
|
|
702 | (5) |
|
Operations and Maintenance |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
|
707 | (8) |
|
Management Choices and Feedback |
|
|
715 | (5) |
|
Utility Choices and Feedback |
|
|
720 | (2) |
|
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
Savings from O&M and Behavior |
|
|
725 | (2) |
|
Additional Related Topics |
|
|
727 | (2) |
|
|
|
729 | (208) |
|
|
|
729 | (1) |
|
|
|
729 | (42) |
|
High Energy Use Intensity in Data Center Power Food Chain |
|
|
729 | (3) |
|
Server Part Load Energy Use |
|
|
732 | (9) |
|
Measures to Reduce Computer Energy Use Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE) |
|
|
741 | (1) |
|
Mechanical Cooling Energy Reflection |
|
|
742 | (1) |
|
|
|
743 | (1) |
|
|
|
743 | (4) |
|
Interaction of HVAC Measures |
|
|
747 | (1) |
|
|
|
748 | (8) |
|
|
|
756 | (8) |
|
Additional Opportunities for Data Centers |
|
|
764 | (4) |
|
|
|
768 | (3) |
|
B Percent per Degree Rule of Thumb for Refrigeration Cycle Improvement |
|
|
771 | (6) |
|
C Early Replacement Business Case |
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
D Lease Arrangements-Effect on Energy Project Interest |
|
|
778 | (20) |
|
E Coordinating Upstream/Downstream Setpoints |
|
|
798 | (3) |
|
F Semiconductor Fab Multi-Stage HVAC Air Tempering |
|
|
801 | (8) |
|
G HVAC Retrofits for the Three Worst Systems |
|
|
809 | (5) |
|
H Chilled Water System Discussion and ECMs |
|
|
814 | (19) |
|
Proportional Pumping Energy Use |
|
|
814 | (3) |
|
|
|
817 | (2) |
|
Approach to Achieving Chiller Plant Energy Savings |
|
|
819 | (1) |
|
Modifying Air Handling Systems to Increase System DT |
|
|
820 | (1) |
|
|
|
821 | (2) |
|
|
|
823 | (2) |
|
Other Chilled Water System ECMS |
|
|
825 | (1) |
|
|
|
825 | (2) |
|
Variable Primary Chilled Water Flow (Dedicated Pumps) |
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
Variable Condenser Water Flow |
|
|
828 | (2) |
|
|
|
830 | (1) |
|
|
|
830 | (1) |
|
Variable Flow During Water Side Economizer Operation |
|
|
831 | (1) |
|
|
|
832 | (1) |
|
|
|
833 | (3) |
|
J Envelope Tradeoffs-Light Harvesting, Window Tinting |
|
|
836 | (4) |
|
K Overlapping Heating and Cooling |
|
|
840 | (12) |
|
L Part Load HVAC Efficiency |
|
|
852 | (17) |
|
M Facility Guide Specifications: Suggestions to Build-in Energy Efficiency |
|
|
869 | (17) |
|
N Regression for Energy Management |
|
|
886 | (20) |
|
O Error Band Using Energy Consumption Signatures as an Operational Control |
|
|
906 | (10) |
|
P Information from Interval Data |
|
|
916 | (23) |
|
Basic Uses of Interval Data |
|
|
923 | (5) |
|
|
|
928 | (9) |
| Section III Appendix |
|
937 | (118) |
|
|
|
939 | (116) |
|
|
|
939 | (6) |
|
Conflicting ECMs and 'Watch Outs' |
|
|
945 | |
|
|
|
10 | (939) |
|
IAQ Mistakes a CEM Should Avoid |
|
|
949 | (1) |
|
|
|
950 | (2) |
|
Representative Tasks and Background Knowledge for Energy Management and Energy Engineering |
|
|
952 | (2) |
|
|
|
954 | (1) |
|
Cost Estimating-Accuracy Levels Defined |
|
|
955 | (1) |
|
Simple Payback vs. Internal Rate of Return (IRR) |
|
|
956 | (6) |
|
DSM Program Cost Effectiveness Tests |
|
|
962 | (5) |
|
Heat Loss from Uninsulated Hot Piping and Surfaces |
|
|
967 | (2) |
|
Duct Fitting Loss Coefficients |
|
|
969 | (2) |
|
Evaporation Loss from Water in Heated Tanks |
|
|
971 | (2) |
|
Cooling Tower Cold Water Basin Heat Loss |
|
|
973 | (1) |
|
Clean Room Particles and Air Changes by Class |
|
|
973 | (1) |
|
Bin Weather Data for 5 Cities |
|
|
974 | (4) |
|
Hours per Year Outside Dry Bulb and Wet Bulb Temperature |
|
|
978 | (1) |
|
Altitude Correction Factors at Different Temperatures (Fa) |
|
|
979 | (1) |
|
|
|
980 | (3) |
|
|
|
983 | (1) |
|
Building Use Categories Defined (CBECS) |
|
|
983 | (5) |
|
Operating Expenses: Percent that Are from Utility Costs |
|
|
988 | (2) |
|
Operating Expenses: Percent that Are from Utility Costs (Manufacturing) |
|
|
990 | (1) |
|
Service Life of Various System Components |
|
|
991 | (4) |
|
Equating Energy Savings to Profit Increase |
|
|
995 | (3) |
|
Integrated Design Examples |
|
|
998 | (1) |
|
Energy Audit Approach for Commercial Buildings |
|
|
999 | (3) |
|
Energy Audit Look-For Items |
|
|
1002 | (7) |
|
Energy Audit-Sample Questionnaire/Checklist |
|
|
1009 | (19) |
|
ASHRAE Psychrometric Charts 1-5 |
|
|
1028 | (5) |
|
Refrigerant Replacement Matrix |
|
|
1033 | (1) |
|
Refrigerant Pressure-Enthalpy (Mollier) Diagrams |
|
|
1034 | (11) |
|
|
|
1045 | (1) |
|
Pressure-Temperature Charts for Refrigerants |
|
|
1046 | (9) |
| Index |
|
1055 | |
