Preface |
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xiii | |
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1 Introduction to Cosmochemistry |
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1 | (19) |
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1 | (1) |
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1.1 What Is Cosmochemistry? |
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1 | (1) |
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1.2 Geochemistry versus Cosmochemistry |
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2 | (2) |
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1.3 Beginnings of Cosmochemistry (and Geochemistry) |
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4 | (11) |
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1.4 The Tools of Cosmochemistry |
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15 | (3) |
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1.5 Relationship of Cosmochemistry to Other Disciplines |
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18 | (2) |
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19 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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19 | (1) |
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19 | (1) |
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2 Nuclides and Elements: The Building Blocks of Matter |
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20 | (17) |
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20 | (1) |
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2.1 Elementary Particles, Isotopes, and Elements |
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20 | (2) |
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2.2 Chart of the Nuclides: Organizing Elements by Their Nuclear Properties |
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22 | (3) |
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2.3 Radioactive Elements and Their Modes of Decay |
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25 | (2) |
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2.4 The Periodic Table: Organizing Elements by Their Chemical Properties |
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27 | (4) |
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31 | (3) |
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2.6 Chemical and Physical Processes Relevant to Cosmochemistry |
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34 | (3) |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (2) |
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37 | (23) |
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37 | (1) |
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37 | (3) |
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3.2 Nucleosynthesis in Stars |
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40 | (16) |
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3.3 Origin of the Galaxy and Galactic Chemical Evolution |
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56 | (4) |
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58 | (1) |
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59 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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59 | (1) |
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59 | (1) |
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4 Solar System and Cosmic Abundances: Elements and Isotopes |
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60 | (25) |
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60 | (1) |
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4.1 Chemistry on a Grand Scale |
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60 | (1) |
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4.2 Historical Perspective |
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60 | (2) |
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4.3 How Are Solar System Abundances Determined? |
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62 | (1) |
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4.4 Determining Chemical Abundances in the Sun |
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62 | (10) |
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4.5 Solar System Abundances of the Elements |
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72 | (1) |
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4.6 Solar System Abundances of the Isotopes |
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72 | (5) |
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4.7 How Did Solar System Abundances Arise? |
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77 | (2) |
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4.8 Differences between Solar System and Cosmic Abundances |
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79 | (2) |
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4.9 How Are Solar System Abundances Used in Cosmochemistry? |
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81 | (4) |
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82 | (1) |
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83 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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83 | (1) |
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83 | (2) |
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5 Presolar Grains: A Record of Stellar Nucleosynthesis and Processes in Interstellar Space |
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85 | (25) |
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85 | (1) |
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5.1 Grains that Predate the Solar System |
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85 | (1) |
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5.2 A Cosmochemical Detective Story |
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85 | (4) |
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5.3 Recognizing Presolar Grains in Meteorites |
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89 | (1) |
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5.4 Known Types of Presolar Grains |
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90 | (1) |
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5.5 Locating and Identifying Presolar Grains |
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91 | (1) |
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5.6 Characterizing Presolar Grains |
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91 | (2) |
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5.7 Identification of Stellar Sources |
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93 | (5) |
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5.8 Presolar Grains as Probes of Stellar Nucleosynthesis |
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98 | (4) |
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5.9 Presolar Grains as Tracers of Circumstellar and Interstellar Environments |
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102 | (2) |
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5.10 Presolar Grains as Probes of the Early Solar System |
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104 | (6) |
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107 | (1) |
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107 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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107 | (1) |
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107 | (3) |
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6 Meteorites, Interplanetary Dust, and Lunar Samples |
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110 | (29) |
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110 | (1) |
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6.1 Primitive versus Differentiated |
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110 | (1) |
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6.2 Components of Chondrites |
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111 | (4) |
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6.3 Chondrite Classification |
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115 | (5) |
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6.4 Oxygen Isotopes in Chondrites |
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120 | (1) |
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6.5 Interplanetary Dust Particles |
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121 | (2) |
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6.6 Nonchondritic Meteorites |
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123 | (1) |
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6.7 Primitive Achondrites |
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124 | (3) |
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127 | (1) |
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6.9 Irons and Stony Irons |
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128 | (2) |
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6.10 Lunar Samples and Meteorites |
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130 | (2) |
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132 | (1) |
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6.12 Oxygen Isotopes in Differentiated Meteorites |
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133 | (1) |
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6.13 Trading Rocks: Meteorites on Other Worlds |
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134 | (5) |
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134 | (1) |
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135 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (3) |
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7 Element Fractionations by Cosmochemical and Geochemical Processes |
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139 | (26) |
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139 | (1) |
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7.1 What Are Element Fractionations and Why Are They Important? |
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139 | (3) |
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7.2 Condensation as a Fractionation Process |
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142 | (6) |
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7.3 Volatile Element Depletions |
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148 | (2) |
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7.4 Physical Fractionations in the Solar Nebula |
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150 | (3) |
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7.5 Igneous Fractionations |
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153 | (4) |
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7.6 Fractionations in Aqueous Systems |
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157 | (1) |
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7.7 Physical Fractionations on Planetesimals and Planets |
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158 | (1) |
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7.8 Differentiation of Rocky Planetesimals and Planets |
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159 | (1) |
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7.9 Differentiation of Giant Planets and Icy Satellites |
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160 | (5) |
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161 | (1) |
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162 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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162 | (1) |
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162 | (3) |
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8 Stable-Isotope Fractionations by Cosmochemical and Geochemical Processes |
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165 | (27) |
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165 | (1) |
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8.1 What Are Isotopic Fractionations and Why Are They Important? |
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165 | (1) |
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8.2 Mass-Dependent Isotope Fractionations |
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166 | (15) |
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8.3 Mass-Independent Isotope Effects |
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181 | (4) |
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8.4 Isotopic Anomalies Inherited from the Sun's Parent Molecular Cloud |
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185 | (7) |
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187 | (1) |
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188 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (3) |
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9 Radioisotopes as Chronometers |
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192 | (46) |
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192 | (1) |
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9.1 Methods of Age Determination |
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192 | (1) |
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9.2 Discussing Radiometric Ages and Time |
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193 | (1) |
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9.3 Basic Principles of Radiometric Age Dating |
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193 | (3) |
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9.4 Long-Lived Radionuclides |
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196 | (24) |
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9.5 Short-Lived Radionuclides |
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220 | (18) |
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232 | (1) |
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232 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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233 | (1) |
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233 | (5) |
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10 Chronology of the Solar System from Radioactive Isotopes |
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238 | (33) |
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238 | (1) |
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10.1 Age of the Elements and the Sun's Formation Environment |
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238 | (5) |
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10.2 Age of the Solar System |
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243 | (12) |
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10.3 Accretion, Differentiation, and Igneous History of Planets and the Moon |
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255 | (4) |
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10.4 Shock Ages and Impact Histories |
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259 | (3) |
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10.5 Cosmogenic Nuclides in Meteorites |
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262 | (3) |
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10.6 Up Next: Flight Instruments for In Situ Dating |
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265 | (6) |
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266 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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267 | (1) |
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267 | (4) |
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11 The Most Volatile Elements and Compounds: Ices, Noble Gases, and Organic Matter |
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271 | (27) |
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271 | (1) |
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271 | (1) |
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11.2 Condensation of Ices |
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272 | (1) |
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11.3 Accretion of Ices and the Snowline |
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272 | (1) |
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11.4 Noble Gases and How They Are Analyzed |
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272 | (2) |
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11.5 Noble Gas Components in Extraterrestrial Samples |
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274 | (3) |
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11.6 Planetary Atmospheres |
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277 | (2) |
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11.7 Extraterrestrial Organic Matter: Occurrence and Complexity |
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279 | (6) |
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11.8 Are Organic Compounds Interstellar, Nebular, or Planetary? |
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285 | (1) |
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11.9 Ices, Noble Gases, and Organic Matter in Planetesimals and Planets |
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286 | (12) |
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294 | (1) |
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295 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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295 | (1) |
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295 | (3) |
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12 Planetesimals: Leftover Planetary Building Blocks |
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298 | (25) |
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298 | (1) |
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12.1 Millions and Millions |
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298 | (1) |
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12.2 Physical Properties of Planetesimals |
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299 | (3) |
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12.3 Spectroscopy and Taxonomy of Planetesimals, and Relation to Samples |
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302 | (8) |
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12.4 Orbital Distributions of Planetesimals |
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310 | (2) |
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12.5 Thermal Metamorphism, Aqueous Alteration, and Melting of Planetesimals |
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312 | (4) |
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12.6 Compositional and Thermal Structure of the Asteroid Belt |
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316 | (2) |
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12.7 Collisions among Planetesimals |
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318 | (5) |
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319 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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320 | (1) |
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320 | (3) |
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13 Chemistry of Planetesimals and Their Samples |
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323 | (23) |
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323 | (1) |
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13.1 The Value of Bulk Chemical Analyses |
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323 | (1) |
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13.2 Compositions of Chondrites and Primitive Planetesimals |
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323 | (7) |
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13.3 Geochemical Exploration of Dwarf Planet Ceres |
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330 | (3) |
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13.4 Compositions of IDPs and Comet Samples |
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333 | (1) |
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13.5 Compositions of Differentiated Meteorites |
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334 | (5) |
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13.6 Geochemical Exploration of Asteroid Vesta |
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339 | (7) |
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342 | (1) |
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343 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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343 | (1) |
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344 | (2) |
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14 Geochemical Exploration: The Moon and Mars as Case Studies |
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346 | (24) |
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346 | (1) |
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14.1 Why the Moon and Mars? |
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346 | (1) |
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14.2 Global Geologic Context for Lunar Geochemistry |
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347 | (1) |
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14.3 Geochemical Tools for Lunar Exploration |
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348 | (2) |
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14.4 Composition of the Lunar Crust |
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350 | (1) |
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14.5 Compositions of the Lunar Mantle and Core |
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351 | (3) |
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14.6 Geochemical Evolution of the Moon |
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354 | (1) |
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14.7 Global Geologic Context for Mars Geochemistry |
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355 | (1) |
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14.8 Geochemical Tools for Mars Exploration |
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356 | (4) |
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14.9 Composition of the Martian Crust |
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360 | (2) |
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14.10 Compositions of the Martian Mantle and Core |
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362 | (2) |
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14.11 Geochemical Evolution of Mars |
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364 | (6) |
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365 | (1) |
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366 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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366 | (1) |
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366 | (4) |
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15 Cosmochemical Models for the Formation and Evolution of Solar Systems |
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370 | (30) |
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370 | (1) |
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15.1 Constraining and Testing Models with Cosmochemistry |
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370 | (1) |
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15.2 From Gas and Dust to Stars and Our Sun |
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370 | (3) |
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15.3 Formation of the Accretion Disk and Planets |
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373 | (1) |
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15.4 Temperatures in the Accretion Disk |
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374 | (6) |
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15.5 Compositional Variations within the Accretion Disk |
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380 | (2) |
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15.6 How to Estimate Bulk Compositions of Planets |
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382 | (3) |
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15.7 Compositions and Differentiation of the Terrestrial Planets |
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385 | (5) |
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15.8 Compositions and Differentiation of the Giant Planets |
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390 | (1) |
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15.9 Orbital and Collisional Evolution of the Solar System |
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391 | (2) |
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15.10 Inferring the Compositions of Exoplanets |
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393 | (7) |
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394 | (1) |
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395 | (1) |
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Suggestions for Further Reading |
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395 | (1) |
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395 | (5) |
Appendix: Some Analytical Techniques Commonly Used in Cosmochemistry |
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400 | (19) |
Glossary |
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419 | (10) |
Index |
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429 | |