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Cryogenic Helium Refrigeration for Middle and Large Powers 2020 ed. [Pehme köide]

  • Formaat: Paperback / softback, 691 pages, kõrgus x laius: 235x155 mm, kaal: 1110 g, 511 Illustrations, color; 175 Illustrations, black and white, 1 Paperback / softback
  • Sari: International Cryogenics Monograph Series
  • Ilmumisaeg: 28-Oct-2021
  • Kirjastus: Springer Nature Switzerland AG
  • ISBN-10: 3030516792
  • ISBN-13: 9783030516796
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Cryogenic Helium Refrigeration for Middle and Large Powers 2020 ed.Suurem pilt
  • Formaat: Paperback / softback, 691 pages, kõrgus x laius: 235x155 mm, kaal: 1110 g, 511 Illustrations, color; 175 Illustrations, black and white, 1 Paperback / softback
  • Sari: International Cryogenics Monograph Series
  • Ilmumisaeg: 28-Oct-2021
  • Kirjastus: Springer Nature Switzerland AG
  • ISBN-10: 3030516792
  • ISBN-13: 9783030516796
Teised raamatud teemal:
Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9783030516796.html
This book offers a practical introduction to helium refrigeration engineering, taking a logical and structured approach to the design, building, commissioning, operation and maintenance of refrigeration systems.





It begins with a short refresher of cryogenic principles, and a review of the theory of heat exchangers, allowing the reader to understand the importance of the heat exchanger role in the various thermodynamic cycle structures. The cycles are considered from the simplest (Joule Thomson) to the most complicated ones for the very large refrigeration plants and, finally, those operating at temperatures lower than 4.5 K.





The focus then turns to the operation, ability and limitations of the main components, including room temperature cycle screw compressors, heat exchangers, cryogenic expansion turbines, cryogenic centrifugal compressors and circulators. The book also describes the basic principles of process control and studies the operating situations of helium plants, with emphasis on high level efficiency.





A major issue is helium purity, and the book explains why helium is polluted, how to purify it and then how to check its purity, to ensure that all components are filled with pure helium prior to starting.





Although the intention of the book is not to design thermodynamic cycles, it is of interest to a designer or operator of a cryogenic system to perform some simplified calculations to get an idea of how components or systems are behaving.  Throughout the book, such calculations are generally performed using Microsoft® Excel and the Gaspak® or Hepak® software. 
1 Some Reminders About Cryogenics and Physics
1(34)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 The Typical Structure of a Helium Cryogenic System
1(1)
1.3 Specific Operating Conditions of a Cryogenic System
2(1)
1.4 The Cryogenic Fluids
2(24)
1.4.1 Properties of Cryogenic Fluids
3(1)
1.4.1.1 The Pressure-Temperature (P-T) Diagram
3(1)
1.4.1.2 Thermal Properties of Fluids
4(2)
1.4.1.3 The Temperature-Entropy (T-s) Diagram
6(4)
1.4.2 Helium
10(1)
1.4.2.1 The Helium Thermophysical Properties
10(2)
1.4.2.2 The Simple or Isenthalpic Expansion of Helium
12(4)
1.4.2.3 Evolution of a Few Properties of Helium
16(2)
1.4.2.4 Superfluid Helium
18(4)
1.4.3 Nitrogen
22(1)
1.4.3.1 The Nitrogen Thermophy sical Properties
22(1)
1.4.4 Hydrogen
22(1)
1.4.4.1 The Hydrogen Thermophysical Properties
23(2)
1.4.5 Comparison of Helium, Hydrogen and Nitrogen Properties
25(1)
1.5 A Few Materials Used in Cryogenics
26(4)
1.5.1 Specific Heat (or Heat Capacity)
26(1)
1.5.2 Thermal Conductivity
26(3)
1.5.3 Thermal Contraction
29(1)
1.6 The Thermodynamic Balance of a System
30(2)
1.7 Thermal Energy and Gas
32(1)
1.8 Terminology
32(1)
1.8.1 Efficiency
32(1)
1.8.2 Yield
33(1)
1.8.3 Coefficient of Performance (COP)
33(1)
1.8.4 Specific Power
33(1)
1.9 Digest
33(2)
2 A Light Theory of Heat Exchangers for Cryogenic Use
35(42)
2.1 Introduction
35(1)
2.2 Duty of a Heat Exchanger
35(5)
2.2.1 Operation of a Heat Exchanger (Considered from "Outdoors")
37(1)
2.2.2 Operation of a Heat Exchanger (Considered from "Indoors")
38(1)
2.2.2.1 Heat Exchange Coefficients
38(1)
2.2.2.2 Incidence of the Wall
39(1)
2.3 Thermodynamic Balance of a Heat Exchanger
40(1)
2.4 A Few Operating Situations Illustrated by Simple Heat Exchanger Calculations
41(36)
2.4.1 Two-Channel Heat Exchangers
42(1)
2.4.1.1 Heat Exchanger 1: Very Simple, Flow-Balanced, Same and Constant Properties for Both Fluids
42(1)
2.4.1.2 Characteristics of a Heat Exchanger
43(5)
2.4.1.3 Heat Exchanger 2: A Simple Heat Exchanger, Flow-Unbalanced, Different, But Constant, Fluid Properties
48(3)
2.4.1.4 Heat Exchanger 3: Flow-Unbalanced, Non-constant Fluid Properties
51(4)
2.4.1.5 Heat Exchanger 4: Non-constant Fluid Properties - A Trap
55(2)
2.4.1.6 Heat Exchanger 5: Non-constant Fluid Properties - Another Trap
57(1)
2.4.1.7 A Real Heat Exchanger
58(2)
2.4.2 Comparison of Heat Exchangers
60(2)
2.4.3 A Few Special Heat Exchangers
62(1)
2.4.3.1 Two Different Fluids
62(2)
2.4.3.2 More Than Two Fluids
64(1)
2.4.3.3 The Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooler
65(1)
2.4.3.4 Dividing Heat Exchangers
66(1)
2.4.4 About Heat Exchangers Operating Horizontally
67(1)
2.4.4.1 What Could Happen When a Cryogenic Heat Exchanger Is Operated in a Horizontal Position?
68(6)
2.4.4.2 Sensitivity of the Specified Pressure Drops in the Heat Exchange Zone
74(1)
2.4.4.3 A Correctly Designed Horizontal Heat Exchanger
74(1)
2.4.4.4 Conclusions
75(1)
2.4.5 Heat Exchanger Digest
76(1)
3 Basic Thermodynamic Cycles
77(74)
3.1 Introduction
77(1)
3.2 The Various Operating Regimes of a Refrigerator
77(13)
3.2.1 The Isothermal-Duty Regime
78(2)
3.2.2 The Non-isothermal-Duty Regime
80(3)
3.2.3 Mixed-Duty Regimes
83(1)
3.2.4 Easy Comparison of the Results of Cycle Calculations
84(1)
3.2.5 An Interest of the T-s Diagram
85(1)
3.2.6 A Thermodynamic Equivalence Between Liquefaction and Refrigeration Regimes
86(2)
3.2.7 The Efficiency of a Thermodynamic Cycle, the Carnot Equivalent Power
88(2)
3.3 The Joule Thomson Cycle
90(19)
3.3.1 An Important Remark
90(1)
3.3.2 "Re-discovering" the Joule Thomson Cycle
90(1)
3.3.2.1 Description and Representation of the Joule Thomson Cycle on the Temperature - Entropy (T-s) Diagram
91(2)
3.3.2.2 The Thermodynamic Balance of a Helium Joule Thomson Cycle
93(1)
3.3.2.3 Calculation of a Helium Joule Thomson Cycle
94(2)
3.3.2.4 Various Operating Conditions of a Joule Thomson Cycle
96(6)
3.3.2.5 The First Drop of Liquid
102(1)
3.3.2.6 Joule Thomson Cycle Analysis: Incidence of Some Parameters
102(4)
3.3.3 The Double JT Expansion
106(3)
3.3.4 A Digest About the Joule Thomson Cycle
109(1)
3.4 The Bray ton Cycle
109(11)
3.4.1 The Expansion with Work Extraction (or Quasi-isentropic Expansion)
109(2)
3.4.2 "Re-discovering" the Brayton Cycle
111(3)
3.4.2.1 Description and Representation of the Brayton Cycle on the Temperature-Entropy (T-s) Diagram
114(1)
3.4.3 Calculation of a Brayton Refrigerator Cycle
115(3)
3.4.4 Brayton Cycle Analysis: Incidence of the Cold Temperature
118(1)
3.4.5 Brayton Cycles with Multiple Turbines
119(1)
3.4.6 A Digest About the Brayton Cycle
120(1)
3.5 The Claude Cycle
120(15)
3.5.1 "Re-discovering" the Claude Cycle
120(1)
3.5.2 Description and Representation of the Claude Cycle on the Temperature-Entropy (T-s) Diagram
121(1)
3.5.3 Various Arrangements for Claude Cycles
122(1)
3.5.3.1 Claude Cycle with One Turbine
122(3)
3.5.3.2 Claude Cycle with Two Turbines in a Parallel Arrangement
125(3)
3.5.3.3 Claude Cycle with Two Turbines in a Series Arrangement
128(2)
3.5.4 Comparing Pure Refrigerator and Pure Liquefier Machines
130(3)
3.5.5 About Efficiency
133(1)
3.5.5.1 Efficiency of Existing Refrigerators
133(1)
3.5.5.2 A Refrigerator Built with Ideal Components?
133(2)
3.5.6 Replacing the JT Valve by an Expander?
135(1)
3.5.7 A Digest About the Claude Cycle
135(1)
3.6 Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooling of Thermodynamic Cycles
135(8)
3.6.1 Refrigeration Regimes
136(1)
3.6.2 Liquefaction Regimes
136(1)
3.6.3 Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooled Brayton Cycle
137(1)
3.6.4 Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooled Claude Cycle with Two Turbines in a Parallel Arrangement
137(1)
3.6.4.1 Pure Refrigerator (Fig. 3.60)
137(2)
3.6.4.2 Pure Liquefier (Fig. 3.61)
139(1)
3.6.4.3 Comparison of the Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooling Incidence on Various Cycle Arrangements
139(1)
3.6.5 Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooling Arrangements
140(1)
3.6.6 Interest of Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooling
141(1)
3.6.7 Nitrogen Re-condensation Cycles
142(1)
3.6.8 A Digest About Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooling
143(1)
3.7 Cooling of Thermal Shields
143(8)
3.7.1 Interest of a Thermal Shield
143(3)
3.7.2 Various Ways to Cool Thermal Shields
146(1)
3.7.2.1 When the Refrigerator Is Not Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooled
147(3)
3.7.2.2 When the Refrigerator Is Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooled
150(1)
3.7.2.3 When the Refrigerator Has a Nitrogen Re-condenser
150(1)
4 Special Thermodynamic Cycles
151(34)
4.1 Introduction
151(1)
4.2 Cycles for High Cryogenic Powers
151(16)
4.2.1 Improving the Brayton Cycle Arrangements
152(1)
4.2.1.1 Piling Up, Temperature Wise, the Maximum Number of Expanders
152(1)
4.2.1.2 Inserting Heat Exchangers Between Expanders
153(1)
4.2.1.3 Arranging Several Expanders in a Pure Series
153(2)
4.2.1.4 General Rules for Efficient-Cycle Turbine Arrangements
155(1)
4.2.2 Improving the Final Expansion of the Joule Thomson Cycle
156(1)
4.2.2.1 Possible Arrangements of the Cold End for a Refrigerator
157(2)
4.2.2.2 Possible Arrangements of the Cold End for a Liquefier
159(1)
4.2.3 Comparing Various Refrigerators: The Equivalent Power
159(2)
4.2.4 The Specific Duties of High-Power Refrigeration for Thermonuclear Controlled Fusion
161(1)
4.2.4.1 The Cable in Conduct Conductor (CICC)
161(1)
4.2.4.2 Circulation of Helium Through the CICC
162(2)
4.2.4.3 The Power Periodic Variation Regimes
164(3)
4.3 Cycles for Temperatures Lower than 4.5 K
167(5)
4.3.1 How to Reach Temperatures Lower than 4.5 K?
167(1)
4.3.1.1 General Arrangements
167(1)
4.3.1.2 Various Possible Structures
168(2)
4.3.1.3 An Important Component: The Joule Thomson Heat Exchanger
170(2)
4.4 Example of a Cycle T-s Diagram
172(2)
4.5 Special Applications of Pure Brayton Cycles
174(3)
4.5.1 Using a Brayton Cycle to Cool Gas
174(1)
4.5.2 Using a Brayton Cycle to Re-condense Hydrogen or Deuterium
174(2)
4.5.3 Using a Brayton Cycle to Liquefy Hydrogen
176(1)
4.6 Cycles Operating with Turbo Machinery Only
177(8)
4.6.1 Room Temperature Compression
179(1)
4.6.1.1 A Turbo Brayton Cycle
179(1)
4.6.1.2 Other Systems
180(3)
4.6.2 Cryogenic Compression
183(2)
5 Various Ways to Connect the Refrigerator Cold Box to the Object to Be Cooled
185(12)
5.1 Introduction
185(1)
5.2 Connection of a Liquefier to a Dewar
185(3)
5.2.1 Small or Middle Size Liquefier
185(2)
5.2.2 Very Large Liquefier
187(1)
5.3 Connection of a Refrigerator to the Cryostat
188(9)
5.3.1 An Important Device: The Test Heater
188(1)
5.3.2 Cooling an Object that Is Dipped in a Liquid Bath
188(1)
5.3.2.1 With Helium Coming Directly from the JT Heat Exchanger
188(1)
5.3.2.2 With Liquid Helium, From a Phase Separator
189(1)
5.3.2.3 From Supercritical Helium
189(1)
5.3.3 Cooling an Object that Is Circulated with Supercritical Helium
190(1)
5.3.3.1 Direct Circulation of the JT Flow
190(1)
5.3.3.2 Using a Circulator
191(1)
5.3.4 Cooling an Object with Superfluid Helium
192(1)
5.3.4.1 Saturated Superfluid Helium
192(1)
5.3.4.2 Cooling an Object with Static Pressurised Superfluid Helium
192(5)
6 Technology of Components
197(166)
6.1 Introduction
197(1)
6.2 The Compression Machines
197(30)
6.2.1 Some General Reminders About Compression of Ideal Gases
199(1)
6.2.1.1 Processed Mass Flow Rate
199(1)
6.2.1.2 Isothermal Compression
200(1)
6.2.1.3 Adiabatic Compression
201(1)
6.2.1.4 Power Calculations
201(1)
6.2.1.5 Behaviour of a Compressor According to the Suction Temperature
202(1)
6.2.1.6 Comparing Compression Powers for Helium, a Monatomic Gas, and for Nitrogen, a Diatomic Gas
203(1)
6.2.2 The Oil Lubricated Twin-Screw Compressor
203(1)
6.2.2.1 Operating Principle
204(4)
6.2.2.2 A Few Specific Aspects of Screw Compressors
208(10)
6.2.2.3 Why Is It Necessary to Oil-Hood the Helium Screw Compressor?
218(1)
6.2.3 Organisation of a Compression Station
219(1)
6.2.3.1 The Check Valve
219(1)
6.2.3.2 Compression Staging
219(2)
6.2.4 Monitoring of a Compressor
221(1)
6.2.5 Efficiency of Oil Cooled Compressors
221(1)
6.2.6 Special Compression Machines
222(1)
6.2.6.1 The Gas Ejector
222(1)
6.2.6.2 The Screw Compressor Operating at Sub-atmospheric Suction Pressure
222(1)
6.2.6.3 The Roots Machine
222(1)
6.2.6.4 The Claw Pump
223(1)
6.2.6.5 The Liquid Ring Pump
224(1)
6.2.6.6 The Centrifugal Compressor
225(1)
6.2.7 A Compressor Digest
226(1)
6.3 The Oil Management and Separation System
227(34)
6.3.1 Selection of the Oil for a Helium Screw Compressor
227(1)
6.3.2 Oil Forms at the Discharge Side of the Compressor
227(1)
6.3.3 Bulk Oil Separation for Oil Drops
228(1)
6.3.4 Vertical Separator
229(1)
6.3.4.1 Oil and Helium Velocity Composition
229(1)
6.3.4.2 Separation According to Droplet Sizes in a Vertical Separator
229(1)
6.3.5 Horizontal Separator
230(1)
6.3.5.1 Oil and Helium Velocity Composition
230(3)
6.3.6 Starting and Re-starting Procedures According to the Oil Management Organisation
233(1)
6.3.6.1 With an External Oil Pump
234(1)
6.3.6.2 With an Integrated Oil Pump
234(1)
6.3.6.3 With No Oil Pump
234(1)
6.3.7 The Coolers
235(1)
6.3.7.1 The Oil Cooler
235(1)
6.3.7.2 The Helium Cooler
235(1)
6.3.7.3 Some Remarks on Oil and Helium Cooler Technologies
236(1)
6.3.7.4 The Cooling Water Circuit Organisation
237(2)
6.3.8 Aerosol Capture
239(1)
6.3.8.1 The Coalescing Process
239(5)
6.3.8.2 The Structure of a Coalescing Cartridge
244(2)
6.3.8.3 Correct Sizing of the Coalescing Cartridges
246(4)
6.3.8.4 Arrangement of the Aerosol Coalescing System
250(3)
6.3.8.5 Managing the Coalescing System
253(4)
6.3.9 Oil Vapour Separation
257(2)
6.3.10 The Whole Oil Removal System
259(1)
6.3.11 Monitoring of a Compression Station
260(1)
6.3.12 A Digest on Oil Separation
260(1)
6.4 The Heat Exchanger
261(19)
6.4.1 Various Technologies
261(1)
6.4.1.1 Pipe in Pipe
262(1)
6.4.1.2 Coiled Pipes in a Shell
263(1)
6.4.1.3 Plate Heat Exchanger
263(3)
6.4.1.4 Mesh or Perforated Plate Heat Exchanger
266(1)
6.4.1.5 Printed Circuit Heat Exchangers
266(1)
6.4.2 The Aluminium Alloy Plate and Fin Heat Exchanger
267(1)
6.4.2.1 Basic Elements
267(3)
6.4.2.2 Structure of the Heat Exchanger
270(8)
6.4.2.3 A Remark on Aluminium Alloy Plate and Fin Heat Exchangers
278(1)
6.4.2.4 Characteristics
279(1)
6.5 The Bearing Systems for Cryogenic Rotating Machines
280(13)
6.5.1 Bearing System Technologies
281(2)
6.5.1.1 Ball Bearings
283(1)
6.5.1.2 Gas Bearing Systems
283(5)
6.5.1.3 Active Magnetic Bearing Systems
288(1)
6.5.1.4 A heat Intercept on the Shaft
289(1)
6.5.1.5 Behaviour of the Shaft According to its Rotational Speed
290(2)
6.5.1.6 Comparison Between Gas Static and Dynamic (Tilting Pad) Bearing Systems
292(1)
6.6 The Cryogenic Expansion Turbine
293(31)
6.6.1 Thermodynamic Aspect of a Cryogenic Expansion Machine
293(2)
6.6.2 Various Cryogenic Expansion Machines
295(1)
6.6.3 Cryogenic Expansion Turbines
295(1)
6.6.3.1 Operating Principle of an Expansion Turbine
296(6)
6.6.3.2 The Structure of a Cryogenic Expansion Turbine
302(2)
6.6.3.3 Setting the Rotational Speed of a Turbine
304(3)
6.6.3.4 Tuning the Rotational Speed of a Turbine
307(2)
6.6.3.5 Efficiency of Helium Expansion Turbines
309(1)
6.6.3.6 Power of Cryogenic Expansion Turbines
309(2)
6.6.3.7 The Cool-Down Procedure of an Expansion Turbine
311(10)
6.6.3.8 Special Operation of Some Turbines
321(1)
6.6.4 Monitoring of a Turbine
321(1)
6.6.4.1 A Gas Static Bearing Turbine
322(1)
6.6.4.2 A Gas Dynamic Bearing Turbine
322(1)
6.6.5 Turbine Digest
322(2)
6.7 The Cryogenic Compressor
324(31)
6.7.1 Thermodynamic Aspects of a Cryogenic Compressor
325(1)
6.7.2 Various Kinds of Cryogenic Compressors
325(1)
6.7.3 Centrifugal Compressors
326(1)
6.7.3.1 Operating Principle of a Centrifugal Compressor
327(3)
6.7.3.2 The Structure of a Cryogenic Centrifugal Compressor
330(1)
6.7.3.3 The Operational Limits of a Centrifugal Compressor
331(5)
6.7.3.4 Control Principles for Cryogenic Centrifugal Compressors (CCC)
336(18)
6.7.4 Monitoring of a Cryogenic Centrifugal Compressor
354(1)
6.7.5 A Cryogenic Compressor Digest
355(1)
6.8 The Cryogenic Circulator
355(1)
6.9 General Structure of a Refrigerator or a Liquefier
356(7)
6.9.1 The Compression Station
356(1)
6.9.2 A Room Temperature Full Flow Dryer
357(1)
6.9.3 The Cold Box
357(1)
6.9.3.1 The Cycle Cold Adsorbers
357(2)
6.9.3.2 A Cryogenic Valve
359(1)
6.9.3.3 A Phase Separator
359(1)
6.9.3.4 Specific Arrangement for Operation at Sub-atmospheric Pressure
360(1)
6.9.3.5 The Insulation Vacuum Set
361(1)
6.9.3.6 The Test Equipment
362(1)
7 Off-Design Operation
363(26)
7.1 Introduction
363(1)
7.2 The Cycle Compressor
364(1)
7.3 The Heat Exchanger
365(5)
7.3.1 Behaviour of a Heat Exchanger
365(1)
7.3.1.1 Design Operating Conditions: Refrigerator Operation
366(1)
7.3.1.2 Off-Design 1: Moving to a Liquefier Operation
366(1)
7.3.1.3 Off-Design 2: Moving to an Economiser Operation
367(1)
7.3.1.4 The Dynamic Behaviour of a Heat Exchanger that Is Suddenly Unbalanced
367(2)
7.3.1.5 Off-Design 3: Changing the Mass Flow Rate
369(1)
7.3.1.6 Off-Design 4: Changing the Temperature Gradient
369(1)
7.4 The Expansion Turbine
370(1)
7.5 The Brayton Cycle
370(3)
7.5.1 Off-Design 1: Changing the Thermal Load
370(2)
7.5.2 Off-Design 2: Changing the Cycle Low Pressure
372(1)
7.5.3 Evolution of Parameters
373(1)
7.6 The Joule Thomson Cycle
373(2)
7.6.1 Off-Design 1: Changing the Thermal Load Repartition - Moving Towards More Refrigeration
374(1)
7.6.2 Off-Design 2: Changing the Cycle High Pressure
374(1)
7.7 The Claude Cycle
375(8)
7.7.1 Off-Design 1: Changing the Thermal Load Repartition - Moving Towards More Refrigeration or More Liquefaction
376(3)
7.7.2 Off-Design 2: A Pure Liquefier Operating at Constant or Rising Level
379(1)
7.7.3 A Special Situation Happening During a Pure Liquefier Operation: Liquid Withdrawal
380(1)
7.7.4 Output Increase by Liquid Nitrogen Pre-Cooling
381(1)
7.7.4.1 Brayton Cycle
381(1)
7.7.4.2 Claude Cycle
382(1)
7.8 Behaviour of an Almost Actual Brayton Refrigerator
383(2)
7.9 A Digest on Off-Design Operation
385(4)
7.9.1 The Cycle Compressor
385(1)
7.9.2 The Heat Exchanger
385(1)
7.9.3 The Expansion Turbine
386(1)
7.9.4 The Brayton Cycle
387(1)
7.9.5 The Joule-Thomson Cycle
387(1)
7.9.6 The Claude Cycle
388(1)
8 System Control
389(40)
8.1 Introduction
389(2)
8.2 A Reminder About Process Control
391(7)
8.2.1 Terminology
391(1)
8.2.2 A Conventional PID Control Loop
392(1)
8.2.2.1 A Light Theory of the PID Control
393(2)
8.2.2.2 Other Possibilities in Using Control Loops
395(1)
8.2.3 A Simple and Interesting Tool: The Attenuator
396(1)
8.2.4 A Control Valve
397(1)
8.3 Refrigerator or Liquefier Cycle Pressure Control
398(7)
8.3.1 General
398(2)
8.3.2 The Cycle Low-Pressure Control
400(1)
8.3.3 The Cycle High-Pressure Control
401(1)
8.3.4 Simultaneous Control of Both High and Low Pressures
402(1)
8.3.5 Control of a Three-Pressure Cycle
403(1)
8.3.6 Adapting the P and I Settings According to the Configuration of the Circuits
403(2)
8.4 Few Controls Around Turbines
405(4)
8.4.1 Rotational Speed Control
405(1)
8.4.2 Discharge Temperature Control
405(1)
8.4.2.1 Avoiding Too Cold a Turbine Discharge Temperature
405(1)
8.4.2.2 Tuning the Optimum Discharge Temperature of a Turbine
406(1)
8.4.3 Cool-Down of Two Turbines in a Series Arrangement
407(2)
8.5 The Minimum Number of Control Loops for a Claude Cycle
409(1)
8.6 Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooling of a Liquefier
410(1)
8.7 Efficient Cryogenic Power Control
411(6)
8.7.1 General
411(1)
8.7.2 Tum-Down of a Two-Pressure Claude Cycle
412(1)
8.7.2.1 Using the Turbine Inlet Valve
412(1)
8.7.2.2 Changing the High Pressure
413(1)
8.7.3 Efficient Turn-Down of a Brayton Cycle
414(1)
8.7.4 Efficient Tum-Down of a Three-Pressure Claude Cycle
415(2)
8.8 Displays
417(2)
8.8.1 Mimic Displays
417(1)
8.8.2 Trends
417(2)
8.9 An Example of a Simple Control Procedure
419(10)
8.9.1 The Operating Procedure Written in a Human Language
419(1)
8.9.2 The Operating Procedure Translated into a Machine Language: GRAFCET as an Example
420(1)
8.9.3 Example of the Compression Station
421(8)
9 Helium Management
429(68)
9.1 Introduction
429(1)
9.2 Helium as a Fluid
429(2)
9.2.1 A Very Short History of Helium
429(1)
9.2.2 Helium Production and Consumption in the World
430(1)
9.3 Why Is Helium Polluted?
431(4)
9.3.1 The Effusion (or Back-Diffusion) Phenomenon
432(2)
9.3.2 Effusion and Other Causes of Pollution
434(1)
9.4 Helium Purification
435(37)
9.4.1 Helium Purification Processes
436(1)
9.4.1.1 Condensation of Water Under Pressure, at Room Temperature
436(1)
9.4.1.2 Adsorption of Gases on Solid
436(13)
9.4.1.3 The Cryo-trapping Process Operating Principle
449(1)
9.4.2 Cleaning and Keeping the Cycle Helium Pure
449(1)
9.4.2.1 Moisture
449(1)
9.4.2.2 Air Gases, Neon and Hydrogen
450(2)
9.4.3 Purification of Helium to Be Liquefied
452(1)
9.4.3.1 Impurities in Helium
452(1)
9.4.3.2 Moisture
452(7)
9.4.3.3 Air Gases
459(2)
9.4.3.4 Operating Procedure of a Cryogenic Adsorption Purifier
461(5)
9.4.3.5 The Cryo-trapping Purifier
466(6)
9.5 Helium Analysis
472(25)
9.5.1 Impurity Levels in Helium
473(1)
9.5.1.1 Expression of Impurity Levels in Helium
473(4)
9.5.1.2 Impurity Concentrations in Helium Plants
477(2)
9.5.2 Dedicated Mono-component Analysers
479(1)
9.5.2.1 Water Analysis
479(4)
9.5.2.2 Oxygen Analysis
483(1)
9.5.2.3 Nitrogen Analysis
484(1)
9.5.2.4 Hydrocarbon Analysis
485(1)
9.5.3 Multi-component Analysers
486(1)
9.5.3.1 The Thermal Conductivity Detector
486(1)
9.5.3.2 The Multi-component High-Frequency Discharge Detector
487(1)
9.5.3.3 The Gas Chromatograph
488(4)
9.5.4 Oil in Helium Analysis
492(1)
9.5.4.1 Oil Aerosols
492(1)
9.5.4.2 Oil Vapour
493(1)
9.5.5 Helium Sampling
493(1)
9.5.5.1 Getting a Relevant Sample
493(2)
9.5.5.2 The Response Time of the Analysis System
495(1)
9.5.6 Calibration of Analysers
496(1)
10 Operation of a Helium Refrigeration Plant
497(26)
10.1 Introduction
497(1)
10.2 For Comfort in Operation: All the System "at a Glance"
498(1)
10.3 Cool-Down
498(12)
10.3.1 Purity of the Cycle Helium
499(1)
10.3.1.1 Water
499(1)
10.3.1.2 Air
500(1)
10.3.2 Examples of Cool-Down Procedures
501(1)
10.3.2.1 A Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooled Cycle
501(2)
10.3.2.2 A Non-liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooled Cycle
503(1)
10.3.3 Cooling Down Heavy Loads with LN2
504(1)
10.3.4 Cool-Down of a Liquefier Without Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooling
505(1)
10.3.4.1 The Dewar Is Cold
505(1)
10.3.4.2 The Dewar Is at Room Temperature
506(1)
10.3.5 Cool-Down of a Refrigerator Without Liquid Nitrogen Pre-cooling
507(3)
10.4 Steady State Operation
510(5)
10.4.1 Cycle Helium Purity
510(1)
10.4.1.1 Water
510(1)
10.4.1.2 Air
511(1)
10.4.2 Helium Inventory
511(1)
10.4.3 Helium Leaks
512(1)
10.4.4 The Stationary Liquid Helium Storage
513(1)
10.4.5 An Example of a Conventional Periodic Human Check of a Refrigeration System
514(1)
10.5 A Special Situation for Liquefiers: Back Flushing the Cold Box Adsorbers
515(1)
10.6 System Warm-Up
516(7)
10.6.1 Circulating in All Circuits
517(2)
10.6.2 Circulating in all Circuits and Using an External Purifier
519(1)
10.6.3 Circulating into the LP Circuits
519(1)
10.6.4 Circulating Back-Way into the LP Circuits
519(1)
10.6.5 Circulating Back-Way into the MP Circuits
520(3)
11 Maintenance of a Helium Refrigeration Plant
523(34)
11.1 Introduction
523(1)
11.2 A Reminder About Maintenance
523(3)
11.3 Method
526(1)
11.4 The Cycle Helium
526(6)
11.4.1 Circuit Conditioning
527(3)
11.4.1.1 Leak Hunting
530(2)
11.5 The Compression Station
532(9)
11.5.1 The Compressor
533(1)
11.5.1.1 The Shaft Seal
533(1)
11.5.1.2 Vibrations
534(6)
11.5.1.3 Oil Injection Control
540(1)
11.5.2 The Electric Motor
540(1)
11.5.3 Compressor Overhauling
541(1)
11.6 The Oil Management System
541(9)
11.6.1 Oil
541(1)
11.6.2 The Bulk Oil Separator (BOS)
542(1)
11.6.3 The Oil Pump
543(1)
11.6.4 The Coolers
543(1)
11.6.4.1 Balancing Water Flows in the Cooling Water Circuit
543(1)
11.6.5 Cooler Performance Check
544(1)
11.6.5.1 Cooling Water Quality
545(1)
11.6.6 The Final Oil Separation System
546(1)
11.6.6.1 The Coalescers
546(2)
11.6.6.2 The Oil Vapour Absorber
548(2)
11.7 The Cold Box
550(1)
11.7.1 The Cycle Heat Exchangers
550(1)
11.7.2 The Cryogenic Expansion Turbine
550(1)
11.7.3 The Cold Adsorbers
551(1)
11.7.4 The Insulation Vacuum System
551(1)
11.8 The Non-specific Components
551(4)
11.8.1 Pressure Vessels
551(1)
11.8.2 Instruments
552(1)
11.8.2.1 Pressure Sensor
552(1)
11.8.2.2 Temperature Sensor
552(1)
11.8.3 Control Valves
552(1)
11.8.3.1 Cryogenic Valve
552(1)
11.8.3.2 The Valve Positioner
553(1)
11.8.4 Safety Valves
554(1)
11.8.5 The Oil and Helium Filters
555(1)
11.8.6 Analysers
555(1)
11.9 The Refrigerator Performance Check-Up After Maintenance
555(2)
11.9.1 Cycle Compressor(s) Performance
556(1)
11.9.2 Whole System Performance Test
556(1)
12 Examples of Various Plants
557(20)
12.1 Introduction
557(1)
12.2 An Industrial Turbo Brayton Refrigerator
557(1)
12.3 A 20 K Refrigerator
557(1)
12.4 A Middle-Size Refrigerator/Liquefier: HELIAL
558(2)
12.5 A Middle-Size Hydrogen Liquefier
560(1)
12.6 A Very Large Industrial Helium Liquefier
560(2)
12.7 Large 4,5 K Refrigerators
562(6)
12.7.1 The RHIC Refrigerator
562(2)
12.7.2 The LEP Refrigerators
564(1)
12.7.3 A Special Distributed System: The Fermilab Tevatron
565(1)
12.7.4 ITER
566(2)
12.8 Large Refrigerators Operating at Less than 4.5 K
568(9)
12.8.1 Tore Supra (WEST since 2013): The Very First Refrigerator with Cryogenic Compression
568(1)
12.8.2 CEBAF (Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility)
569(2)
12.8.3 The CERN LHC
571(3)
12.8.4 The European Spallation Source
574(3)
13 A Helium Plant (System) Technical Specification
577(8)
13.1 The Structure of a Technical Specification
577(1)
13.2 Examples of Possible Important Specific Requirements
577(2)
13.2.1 Oil Separation
578(1)
13.2.2 Instrumentation
578(1)
13.2.2.1 Instrumentation for Measurements at the Interfaces of the System
578(1)
13.2.2.2 Instrumentation for Performance Measurements of Special Components
579(1)
13.2.2.3 Standard Cryogenic Temperature Measurement
579(1)
13.2.2.4 Environment
579(1)
13.3 Examples of Important Expected Information from the Possible Supplier
579(2)
13.3.1 Cycle Compressors
579(1)
13.3.2 Expansion Turbines
580(1)
13.3.3 Cryogenic Compressors and/or Circulators
580(1)
13.3.4 Test Equipment
580(1)
13.3.5 Liquid Helium Storage
580(1)
13.3.6 Margins Taken by the Possible Supplier on the Absorbed and Cryogenic Powers
580(1)
13.4 Interfaces Requirements and Expected Information
581(1)
13.5 Do Not Specify a Plant Looking Only at the Final User Needs
582(1)
13.6 Do Not Over-Specify
582(3)
14 Commissioning Tests of a Refrigeration-Liquefaction Plant
585(28)
14.1 Introduction
585(1)
14.2 An Example of the Sequence of a Test Programme
586(1)
14.3 Status of the System Prior to Starting the Final Part of Commissioning Tests
586(1)
14.4 Compression Station
587(8)
14.4.1 Compression Station Leak Tightness in Operation
587(1)
14.4.2 Cycle Gas Purity
588(1)
14.4.3 Vibration Measurements
588(1)
14.4.4 Performances at Nominal Mass Flow Rate for Each Compressor
589(3)
14.4.5 Performances at Reduced Mass Flow Rate
592(1)
14.4.6 Performances at Reduced Suction Pressure
592(1)
14.4.7 Long Duration Test
592(1)
14.4.8 Check of the Oil Removal System Performance
593(1)
14.4.8.1 The Bulk Oil Separator
593(1)
14.4.8.2 The Coalescers
593(1)
14.4.8.3 The Oil Vapour Adsorber
594(1)
14.4.9 Check of the Full-Flow Dryer
595(1)
14.5 The Cold Box
595(14)
14.5.1 Insulation Vacuum
596(1)
14.5.2 Cold Box Leak Tightness
596(1)
14.5.2.1 Air Leaks into Vacuum
596(1)
14.5.2.2 Helium Leaks into Vacuum
597(1)
14.5.3 Cycle Adsorbers
597(1)
14.5.3.1 Regeneration and Switching Procedure of the Warm Adsorbers
597(1)
14.5.3.2 Regeneration and By-Pass Procedure of the Cold Adsorber
597(1)
14.5.3.3 Retention Capacity of the Adsorbers
598(1)
14.5.4 Turbine Performance
599(1)
14.5.5 Thermal Shields
600(2)
14.5.6 Lowest Temperature Power (> 4.5 K)
602(1)
14.5.6.1 Pure Liquefier Operation
602(1)
14.5.6.2 Mixed Duty Operation
603(1)
14.5.7 Lowest Temperature (> 4.5 K)
604(1)
14.5.7.1 Necessary Instrumentation
604(3)
14.5.7.2 Test Procedures
607(2)
14.6 Liquid Helium Storage
609(4)
14.6.1 A Remark on How to Measure Accurately the Heat Leaks of a Liquid Helium Dewar
609(1)
14.6.2 Storage with Liquid Nitrogen Cooled Shields
610(1)
14.6.2.1 The Heat Leaks on Thermal Shields
610(1)
14.6.2.2 The Heat Leaks on Liquid Helium
611(1)
14.6.3 Storage with Shields Connected to the Neck
612(1)
15 The Cryo Tool Box
613(28)
15.1 Introduction
613(2)
15.2 The HEPAK Software
615(1)
15.3 The REFPROP® Software
615(1)
15.4 The GASPAK® Software
616(1)
15.5 The Suggested Way to Work with a Fluid Property Software
616(1)
15.6 Connecting REFPROP or HEPAK and EXCEL
617(1)
15.7 Building the REFPROP Gas Property Tool
617(6)
15.7.1 Calculation of a Property
617(2)
15.7.2 Calculation of Some Most Common Properties
619(1)
15.7.3 Other Property Calculations
620(1)
15.7.4 Properties at Saturation
620(1)
15.7.5 The Gas Property Sheet
621(1)
15.7.6 A Faster Way to Get Often Called Properties: Excel Macros
622(1)
15.8 Building Some Tools
623(18)
15.8.1 The Room Temperature Compressor
624(2)
15.8.2 The Free Expansion of a Fluid
626(1)
15.8.2.1 Free Expansion
626(2)
15.8.2.2 Expanding Helium at Room Temperature
628(1)
15.8.2.3 Looking for the Inversion Temperature of a Gas
628(1)
15.8.2.4 Expanding Saturated Liquid
629(1)
15.8.2.5 Calculating a Mass Flow
630(1)
15.8.3 The Heat Exchanger
631(1)
15.8.3.1 A Simple Heat Exchanger (Operating at Temperatures Higher Than 100 K)
631(2)
15.8.3.2 A Heat Exchanger in Which Helium Properties Are Not Constant
633(1)
15.8.3.3 A Heat Exchanger Operating with Two Different Fluids
634(1)
15.8.4 The Cryogenic Expander
635(3)
15.8.5 The Cryogenic Compressor or Circulator
638(1)
15.8.6 Industrial Software to Perform Thermodynamic Calculations
638(1)
15.8.7 The Equivalent Power
639(2)
16 The Saga of Cryogenic Refrigeration
641(30)
16.1 The Liquefaction of "Permanent" Gases
641(1)
16.2 The First Liquefaction of Helium
641(2)
16.3 The Simon Cryostat
643(2)
16.4 Opening the Door to Liquid Helium Applications
645(1)
16.5 The Pure Joule-Thomson Liquefiers
646(3)
16.5.1 Air Liquefiers
646(1)
16.5.2 Helium Liquefiers
646(3)
16.6 The Liquefiers with Expansion Machines
649(4)
16.6.1 The Reciprocating Expander
649(1)
16.6.2 The Expansion Turbine
650(3)
16.7 The Space Adventure
653(1)
16.8 The Cryogenerators and Cryocoolers
654(8)
16.8.1 A Reminder on Regenerator
655(1)
16.8.2 The Stirling Cryogenerator
655(3)
16.8.3 The Gifford-McMahon (GM) Cryogenerator
658(1)
16.8.4 The Pulse Tube (PT) Cryocooler
659(2)
16.8.5 The Brayton Cryocooler
661(1)
16.9 Liquefiers Pre-cooled by Cryogenerators
662(1)
16.9.1 Pre-cooling with a Stirling Cryogenerator
662(1)
16.9.2 Pre-cooling with a Pulse Tube Cryocooler
663(1)
16.10 Automation of Refrigeration Plants
663(2)
16.11 The Oil Lubricated Screw Compressor
665(1)
16.12 The Cryogenic Centrifugal Compressor
666(1)
16.13 The Static Pressurised Superfluid Helium
666(1)
16.14 All-Cryogenic Rotating Machine Refrigerators
667(1)
16.15 The Present State of the Art in Cryogenic Helium Refrigeration
667(3)
16.15.1 Cryogenic Power
667(1)
16.15.2 Availability
667(1)
16.15.3 Efficiency
667(2)
16.15.4 Technology
669(1)
16.15.5 Space Special Applications
669(1)
16.16 Which Could Be Some Possible Improvements?
670(1)
17 A Digest in Thermodynamics for Helium Refrigeration
671(12)
17.1 A Refresher in Elementary Engineering Thermodynamics
671(3)
17.2 Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
674(2)
17.2.1 Definition
674(1)
17.2.2 Derivation
675(1)
17.3 Exergy
676(7)
17.3.1 Definition of Exergy
676(1)
17.3.2 Thermodynamic Significance of Exergy
677(1)
17.3.2.1 The Carnot Factor
677(1)
17.3.2.2 Derivation of Exergy
678(3)
17.3.2.3 The Definition of the Reference State
681(2)
References 683(2)
Index 685
Guy Gistau Baguer is a consultant in the field of cryogenics and helium refrigeration and liquefaction, with more than 50 years experience of building and operating cryogenic systems. From 1965 to 2000 he worked for Air Liquide, and since 2000 has been a consultant providing training courses in helium refrigeration engineering. He is a member of the A1/2 commission of the International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR), member of the "Association Française du Froid, Commission Cryogénie et Supraconductivité", former advisor editor for the journal Cryogenics journal, former-member (1984 2008) and former-Chairman (1998 2006) of the International Cryogenic Engineering Committee (ICEC), and former member of the Board of the International Cryogenic Engineering Material. He holds 9 patents in the field of helium refrigeration, and has presented over 50 papers in domestic and international conferences.In 2020, the International Cryogenic Engineering Committee awarded him the Mendelssohn prize.