Preface |
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xvii | |
Nomenclature |
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xxi | |
Part I: Principles |
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Chapter 1 Power Electronics and the Energy Revolution |
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2 | (46) |
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1.1 The Energy Basis of Electrical Engineering |
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3 | (2) |
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1.2 What Is Power Electronics? |
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5 | (2) |
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1.3 The Need for Electrical Conversion |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (11) |
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1.4.1 Rectifiers and the Diode |
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8 | (1) |
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1.4.2 Inverters and Power Transistors |
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9 | (2) |
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1.4.3 Motor Drive Applications |
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11 | (1) |
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1.4.4 Power Supplies and dc—dc Conversion |
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12 | (3) |
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1.4.5 Alternative Energy Processing |
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15 | (1) |
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1.4.6 The Energy Future: Power Electronics as a Revolution |
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16 | (2) |
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1.4.7 Summary and Future Developments |
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18 | (1) |
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1.5 Goals and Methods of Electrical Conversion |
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19 | (3) |
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1.5.1 The Basic Objectives |
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19 | (1) |
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1.5.2 The Efficiency Objective—The Switch |
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20 | (1) |
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1.5.3 The Reliability Objective—Simplicity and Integration |
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21 | (1) |
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1.5.4 Important Variables and Notation |
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21 | (1) |
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1.6 Energy Analysis of Switching Power Converters |
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22 | (10) |
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1.6.1 Conservation of Energy over Time |
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23 | (2) |
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1.6.2 Energy Flows and Action in dc—dc Converters |
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25 | (4) |
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1.6.3 Energy Flows and Action in Rectifiers |
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29 | (3) |
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1.7 Power Electronics Applications: A Universal Energy Enabler |
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32 | (9) |
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1.7.1 Solar Energy Architectures |
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32 | (4) |
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1.7.2 Wind Energy Architectures |
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36 | (2) |
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1.7.3 Tide and Wave Architectures |
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38 | (1) |
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1.7.4 Electric Transportation Architectures |
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39 | (2) |
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41 | (1) |
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42 | (3) |
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45 | (3) |
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Chapter 2 Switching Conversion and Analysis |
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48 | (46) |
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49 | (1) |
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2.2 Combining Conventional Circuits and Switches |
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49 | (7) |
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2.2.1 Organizing a Converter to Focus on Switches |
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49 | (3) |
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2.2.2 Configuration-based Analysis |
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52 | (1) |
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2.2.3 The Switch Matrix as a Design Tool |
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53 | (3) |
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2.3 The Reality of Kirchhoff's Laws |
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56 | (7) |
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2.3.1 The Challenge of Switching Violations |
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56 | (2) |
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2.3.2 Interconnection of Voltage and Current Sources |
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58 | (1) |
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2.3.3 Short-Term and Long-Term Violations |
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59 | (1) |
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2.3.4 Interpretation of Average Inductor Voltage and Capacitor Current |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (2) |
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2.4 Switching Functions and Applications |
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63 | (5) |
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2.5 Overview of Switching Devices |
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68 | (7) |
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68 | (1) |
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2.5.2 The Restricted Switch |
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69 | (2) |
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2.5.3 Typical Devices and Their Functions |
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71 | (4) |
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2.6 Methods for Diode Switch Circuits |
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75 | (8) |
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2.7 Control of Converters Based on Switch Action |
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83 | (1) |
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2.8 Equivalent Source Methods |
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84 | (2) |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (4) |
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92 | (2) |
Part II: Converters And Applications |
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Chapter 3 dc-dc Converters |
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94 | (78) |
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3.1 The Importance of dc—dc Conversion |
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95 | (1) |
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3.2 Why Not Voltage Dividers? |
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95 | (2) |
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97 | (3) |
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97 | (2) |
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3.3.2 Regulation Measures |
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99 | (1) |
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3.4 Direct dc—dc Converters and Filters |
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100 | (21) |
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100 | (5) |
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3.4.2 The Boost Converter |
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105 | (2) |
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3.4.3 Power Filter Design |
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107 | (5) |
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3.4.4 Discontinuous Modes and Critical Inductance |
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112 | (9) |
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3.5 Indirect dc—dc Converters |
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121 | (18) |
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3.5.1 The Buck-Boost Converter |
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121 | (3) |
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3.5.2 The Boost-Buck Converter |
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124 | (1) |
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3.5.3 The Flyback Converter |
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125 | (4) |
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3.5.4 SEPIC, Zeta, and Other Indirect Converters |
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129 | (2) |
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3.5.5 Power Filters in Indirect Converters |
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131 | (2) |
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3.5.6 Discontinuous Modes in Indirect Converters |
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133 | (6) |
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3.6 Forward Converters and Isolation |
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139 | (8) |
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3.6.1 Basic Transformer Operation |
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139 | (2) |
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3.6.2 General Considerations in Forward Converters |
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141 | (1) |
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3.6.3 Catch-Winding Forward Converter |
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142 | (1) |
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3.6.4 Forward Converters with ac Links |
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143 | (3) |
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3.6.5 Boost-Derived (Current-Fed) Forward Converters |
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146 | (1) |
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3.7 Bidirectional Converters |
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147 | (2) |
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3.8 dc—dc Converter Design Issues and Examples |
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149 | (11) |
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3.8.1 The High-Side Switch Challenge |
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149 | (1) |
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3.8.2 Limitations of Resistive and Forward Drops |
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150 | (2) |
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152 | (3) |
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3.8.4 Solar Interface Converter |
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155 | (2) |
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3.8.5 Electric Truck Interface Converter |
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157 | (1) |
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3.8.6 Telecommunications Power Supply |
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158 | (2) |
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3.9 Application Discussion |
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160 | (1) |
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161 | (3) |
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164 | (5) |
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169 | (3) |
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Chapter 4 Rectifiers and Switched Capacitor Circuits |
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172 | (74) |
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173 | (1) |
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173 | (2) |
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4.3 The Classical Rectifier—Operation and Analysis |
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175 | (7) |
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4.4 Phase-Controlled Rectifiers |
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182 | (25) |
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4.4.1 The Uncontrolled Case |
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182 | (4) |
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4.4.2 Controlled Bridge and Midpoint Rectifiers |
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186 | (9) |
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4.4.3 The Polyphase Bridge Rectifier |
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195 | (5) |
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4.4.4 Power Filtering in Rectifiers |
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200 | (2) |
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4.4.5 Discontinuous Mode Operation |
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202 | (5) |
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207 | (11) |
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207 | (6) |
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4.5.2 Discontinuous Mode Flyback and Related Converters as Active Rectifiers |
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213 | (2) |
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4.5.3 Polyphase Active Rectifiers |
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215 | (3) |
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4.6 Switched-Capacitor Converters |
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218 | (5) |
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4.6.1 Charge Exchange between Capacitors |
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218 | (1) |
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4.6.2 Capacitors and Switch Matrices |
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219 | (2) |
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4.6.3 Doublers and Voltage Multipliers |
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221 | (2) |
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4.7 Voltage and Current Doublers |
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223 | (1) |
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4.8 Converter Design Examples |
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224 | (9) |
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4.8.1 Wind Power Rectifier |
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224 | (2) |
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4.8.2 Power System Control and High-Voltage dc |
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226 | (2) |
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4.8.3 Solid-State Lighting |
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228 | (2) |
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4.8.4 Vehicle Active Battery Charger |
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230 | (3) |
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4.9 Application Discussion |
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233 | (1) |
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234 | (4) |
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238 | (5) |
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243 | (3) |
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246 | (46) |
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247 | (1) |
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5.2 Inverter Considerations |
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247 | (3) |
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5.3 Voltage-Sourced Inverters and Control |
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250 | (5) |
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5.4 Pulse-Width Modulation |
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255 | (11) |
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255 | (3) |
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5.4.2 Creating Pulse-Width Modulation Waveforms |
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258 | (3) |
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5.4.3 Drawbacks of Pulse-Width Modulation |
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261 | (1) |
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5.4.4 Multi-level Pulse-Width Modulation |
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262 | (3) |
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5.4.5 Inverter Input Current under Pulse-Width Modulation |
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265 | (1) |
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5.5 Three-Phase Inverters and Space Vector Modulation |
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266 | (7) |
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5.6 Current-Sourced Inverters |
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273 | (2) |
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5.7 Filters and Inverters |
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275 | (2) |
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5.8 Inverter Design Examples |
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277 | (7) |
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5.8.1 Solar Power Interface |
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277 | (1) |
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5.8.2 Uninterruptible Power Supply |
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278 | (2) |
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5.8.3 Electric Vehicle High-Performance Drive |
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280 | (4) |
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5.9 Application Discussion |
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284 | (1) |
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284 | (2) |
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286 | (3) |
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289 | (3) |
Part III: Real Components And Their Effects |
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Chapter 6 Real Sources and Loads |
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292 | (48) |
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293 | (1) |
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293 | (6) |
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294 | (2) |
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296 | (2) |
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6.2.3 Coping with Load Variation—Dynamic Regulation |
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298 | (1) |
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299 | (2) |
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6.4 Critical Values and Examples |
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301 | (4) |
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6.5 Interfaces for Real Sources |
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305 | (9) |
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6.5.1 Impedance Behavior of Sources |
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305 | (1) |
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6.5.2 Interfaces for dc Sources |
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306 | (3) |
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6.5.3 Interfaces for ac Sources |
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309 | (5) |
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6.6 Source Characteristics of Batteries |
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314 | (6) |
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316 | (1) |
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317 | (1) |
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6.6.3 Lithium-ion Batteries |
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318 | (1) |
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6.6.4 Basis for Comparison |
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319 | (1) |
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6.7 Source Characteristics of Fuel Cells and Solar Cells |
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320 | (4) |
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320 | (2) |
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322 | (2) |
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324 | (7) |
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6.8.1 Wind Farm Interconnection Problems |
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324 | (1) |
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6.8.2 Bypass Capacitor Benefits |
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325 | (1) |
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6.8.3 Interface for a Boost Power Factor Correction Active Rectifier |
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326 | (2) |
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6.8.4 Lithium-ion Battery Charger for a Small Portable Device |
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328 | (3) |
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6.9 Application Discussion |
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331 | (1) |
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332 | (2) |
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334 | (3) |
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337 | (3) |
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Chapter 7 Capacitors and Resistors |
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340 | (38) |
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341 | (1) |
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7.2 Capacitors—Types and Equivalent Circuits |
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341 | (12) |
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341 | (3) |
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344 | (2) |
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346 | (2) |
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7.2.4 Simple Dielectric Types and Materials |
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348 | (1) |
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349 | (3) |
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7.2.6 Double-Layer Capacitors |
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352 | (1) |
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7.3 Effects of Equivalent Series Resistance |
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353 | (3) |
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7.4 Effects of Equivalent Series Inductance |
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356 | (2) |
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358 | (6) |
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358 | (3) |
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361 | (2) |
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7.5.3 Temperature and Frequency Effects |
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363 | (1) |
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364 | (2) |
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366 | (4) |
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7.7.1 Single-phase Inverter Energy |
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366 | (1) |
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7.7.2 Paralleling Capacitors in a Low-Voltage dc—dc Converter |
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367 | (3) |
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7.7.3 Resistance Management in a Heat Lamp Application |
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370 | (1) |
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7.8 Application Discussion |
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370 | (2) |
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372 | (1) |
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373 | (3) |
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376 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Concepts of Magnetics for Power Electronics |
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378 | (46) |
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379 | (1) |
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8.2 Maxwell's Equations with Magnetic Approximations |
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379 | (1) |
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8.3 Materials and Properties |
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380 | (2) |
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382 | (9) |
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8.4.1 The Circuit Analogy |
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382 | (1) |
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382 | (6) |
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8.4.3 Ideal and Real Transformers |
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388 | (3) |
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8.5 The Hysteresis Loop and Losses |
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391 | (4) |
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8.6 Saturation as a Design Constraint |
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395 | (5) |
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395 | (3) |
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8.6.2 General Design Considerations |
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398 | (2) |
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400 | (14) |
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8.7.1 Core Materials and Geometries |
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400 | (4) |
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8.7.2 Additional Discussion of Transformers |
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404 | (1) |
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8.7.3 Hybrid Automobile Boost Inductor |
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405 | (1) |
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8.7.4 Building-integrated Solar Energy Converter |
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406 | (5) |
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8.7.5 Isolated Converter for Small Satellite Application |
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411 | (3) |
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8.8 Application Discussion |
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414 | (3) |
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417 | (3) |
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420 | (3) |
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423 | (1) |
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Chapter 9 Power Semiconductors in Converters |
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424 | (72) |
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425 | (1) |
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9.2 Switching Device States |
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425 | (2) |
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427 | (6) |
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9.4 Switch Energy Losses and Examples |
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433 | (10) |
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9.4.1 General Analysis of Losses |
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433 | (2) |
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9.4.2 Losses during Commutation |
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435 | (4) |
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439 | (4) |
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9.5 Simple Heat Transfer Models for Power Semiconductors |
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443 | (5) |
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9.6 The P-N Junction as a Power Device |
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448 | (2) |
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9.7 P-N Junction Diodes and Alternatives |
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450 | (2) |
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452 | (4) |
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9.9 Field-Effect Transistors |
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456 | (4) |
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9.10 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors |
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460 | (4) |
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9.11 Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristors and Combination Devices |
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464 | (1) |
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9.12 Impact of Compound and Wide Bandgap Semiconductors |
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464 | (2) |
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466 | (9) |
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466 | (1) |
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9.13.2 Lossy Turn-off Snubbers |
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467 | (4) |
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9.13.3 Lossy Turn-on Snubbers |
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471 | (3) |
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9.13.4 Combined and Lossless Snubbers |
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474 | (1) |
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475 | (10) |
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9.14.1 Boost Converter for Disk Drive |
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475 | (6) |
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9.14.2 Loss Estimate for Electric Vehicle Inverter |
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481 | (3) |
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9.14.3 Extreme Performance Devices |
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484 | (1) |
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9.15 Application Discussion |
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485 | (2) |
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487 | (4) |
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491 | (3) |
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494 | (2) |
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Chapter 10 Interfacing with Power Semiconductors |
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496 | (36) |
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497 | (1) |
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497 | (10) |
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497 | (1) |
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10.2.2 Voltage-Controlled Gates |
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498 | (4) |
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10.2.3 Pulsed-Current Gates |
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502 | (4) |
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506 | (1) |
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10.3 Isolation and High-Side Switching |
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507 | (4) |
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10.4 P-channel Applications and Shoot-through |
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511 | (2) |
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10.5 Sensors for Power Electronic Switches |
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513 | (8) |
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513 | (2) |
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10.5.2 Integrating Sensing Functions with the Gate Drive |
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515 | (2) |
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10.5.3 Noncontact Sensing |
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517 | (4) |
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521 | (3) |
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10.6.1 Gate Consideration on dc—dc-Based Battery Charger |
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521 | (2) |
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10.6.2 Gate Drive Impedance Requirements |
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523 | (1) |
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10.6.3 Hall Sensor Accuracy Interpretation |
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523 | (1) |
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10.7 Application Discussion |
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524 | (1) |
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524 | (2) |
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526 | (3) |
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529 | (3) |
Part IV: Control Aspects |
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Chapter 11 Overview of Feedback Control for Converters |
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532 | (48) |
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533 | (1) |
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11.2 The Regulation and Control Problem |
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533 | (2) |
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533 | (1) |
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11.2.2 Defining the Regulation Problem |
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533 | (1) |
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11.2.3 The Control Problem |
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534 | (1) |
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11.3 Review of Feedback Control Principles |
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535 | (11) |
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11.3.1 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Control |
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535 | (2) |
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537 | (2) |
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11.3.3 System Gain and Laplace Transforms |
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539 | (2) |
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11.3.4 Transient Response and Frequency Domain |
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541 | (1) |
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542 | (4) |
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11.4 Converter Models for Feedback |
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546 | (5) |
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11.4.1 Basic Converter Dynamics |
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546 | (1) |
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11.4.2 Fast-Switching Models |
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547 | (1) |
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11.4.3 Piecewise-Linear Models |
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547 | (3) |
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11.4.4 Discrete Time Models |
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550 | (1) |
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11.5 Voltage-Mode and Current-Mode Controls for dc—dc Converters |
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551 | (10) |
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11.5.1 Voltage-Mode Control |
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551 | (4) |
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11.5.2 Current-Mode Control |
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555 | (3) |
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11.5.3 Large-Signal Issues in Voltage-Mode and Current-Mode Control |
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558 | (3) |
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11.6 Comparator-Based Controls for Rectifier Systems |
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561 | (3) |
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11.7 Proportional and Proportional-integral Control Applications |
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564 | (2) |
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566 | (5) |
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11.8.1 Voltage-Mode Control and Performance |
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566 | (1) |
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11.8.2 Feedforward Compensation |
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567 | (1) |
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11.8.3 Electric Vehicle Control Setup |
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568 | (3) |
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11.9 Application Discussion |
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571 | (1) |
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571 | (4) |
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575 | (3) |
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578 | (2) |
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Chapter 12 Control Modeling and Design |
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580 | (52) |
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581 | (1) |
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12.2 Averaging Methods and Models |
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581 | (9) |
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12.2.1 Formulation of Averaged Models |
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581 | (7) |
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12.2.2 Averaged Circuit Models |
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588 | (2) |
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12.3 Small-Signal Analysis and Linearization |
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590 | (4) |
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12.3.1 The Need for Linear Models |
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590 | (1) |
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12.3.2 Obtaining Linear Models |
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590 | (1) |
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12.3.3 Generalizing the Process |
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591 | (3) |
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12.4 Control and Control Design Based on Linearization |
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594 | (19) |
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12.4.1 Transfer Functions |
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594 | (5) |
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12.4.2 Control Design—Introduction |
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599 | (5) |
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12.4.3 Compensation and Filtering |
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604 | (4) |
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12.4.4 Compensated Feedback Examples |
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608 | (5) |
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12.4.5 Challenges for Control Design |
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613 | (1) |
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613 | (10) |
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12.5.1 Boost Converter Control Example |
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613 | (5) |
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12.5.2 Buck Converter with Current-Mode Control |
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618 | (2) |
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12.5.3 Buck Converter with Voltage-Mode Control |
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620 | (3) |
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12.6 Application Discussion |
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623 | (2) |
|
|
625 | (2) |
|
|
627 | (2) |
|
|
629 | (3) |
Part V: Advanced Topics |
|
|
Chapter 13 ac to ac Conversion |
|
|
632 | (36) |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
13.2 ac Regulators and Integral Cycle Control |
|
|
633 | (6) |
|
13.2.1 Silicon-Conrolled Rectifier and Triac-Based ac Regulators |
|
|
633 | (5) |
|
13.2.2 Integral Cycle Control |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
13.3 Frequency Matching Conditions |
|
|
639 | (2) |
|
|
641 | (7) |
|
13.4.1 Slow-Switching Frequency Converters: The Choice fawitch =fin +fout |
|
|
641 | (3) |
|
13.4.2 Unrestricted Frequency Converters: The Choice fawitch =fin +fout |
|
|
644 | (2) |
|
13.4.3 Unifying the Direct Switching Methods: Linear Phase Modulation |
|
|
646 | (2) |
|
|
648 | (3) |
|
13.6 Pulse-Width Modulation ac—ac Conversion |
|
|
651 | (2) |
|
|
653 | (3) |
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
657 | (4) |
|
13.9.1 Heater Control with Triac ac Regulator |
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
13.9.2 Aircraft Interface Converter |
|
|
658 | (2) |
|
13.9.3 Sizing a dc Link ac—ac Converter |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
13.10 Application Discussion |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
663 | (3) |
|
|
666 | (2) |
|
Chapter 14 Resonance in Converters |
|
|
668 | (44) |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
|
669 | (12) |
|
14.2.1 Characteristic Equations |
|
|
669 | (2) |
|
14.2.2 Step Function Excitation |
|
|
671 | (4) |
|
|
675 | (2) |
|
14.2.4 Parallel Resonance |
|
|
677 | (4) |
|
14.3 Soft Switching Techniques—Introduction |
|
|
681 | (3) |
|
14.3.1 Soft Switching Principles |
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 Inverter Configurations |
|
|
681 | (2) |
|
14.3.3 Parallel capacitor as a dc-dc Soft Switching Element |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
14.4 Soft switching in dc-dc Converters |
|
|
684 | (12) |
|
14.4.1 Description of Quasi-resonance |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
14.4.2 Zero-Current Switching Transistor Action |
|
|
685 | (6) |
|
14.4.3 Zero-Voltage Switching Transistor Action |
|
|
691 | (5) |
|
14.5 Resonance Used for Control— Forward Converters |
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
|
697 | (5) |
|
14.6.1 Limitations of Antiresonant Filters |
|
|
697 | (2) |
|
14.6.2 Creating an ac Link for a dc—dc Converter |
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
14.6.3 Resonant Boost Converter for Solar Application |
|
|
699 | (3) |
|
14.7 Application Discussion |
|
|
702 | (1) |
|
|
702 | (3) |
|
|
705 | (5) |
|
|
710 | (2) |
|
Chapter 15 Hysteresis and Geometric Control for Power Converters |
|
|
712 | |
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
|
713 | |
|
13.4.2 Unrestricted Frequency Converters: The Choice f: ,.switch= fin+ font |
|
|
644 | (2) |
|
13.4.3 Unifying the Direct Switching Methods: Linear Phase Modulation |
|
|
646 | (2) |
|
|
648 | (3) |
|
13.6 Pulse-Width Modulation ac—ac Conversion |
|
|
651 | (2) |
|
|
653 | (3) |
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
657 | (4) |
|
13.9.1 Heater Control with Triac ac Regulator |
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
13.9.2 Aircraft Interface Converter |
|
|
658 | (2) |
|
13.9.3 Sizing a dc Link ac—ac Converter |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
13.10 Application Discussion |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
|
663 | (3) |
|
|
666 | (2) |
|
Chapter 14 Resonance in Converters |
|
|
668 | (44) |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
|
669 | (12) |
|
14.2.1 Characteristic Equations |
|
|
669 | (2) |
|
14.2.2 Step Function Excitation |
|
|
671 | (4) |
|
|
675 | (2) |
|
14.2.4 Parallel Resonance |
|
|
677 | (4) |
|
14.3 Soft Switching Techniques—Introduction |
|
|
681 | (3) |
|
14.3.1 Soft Switching Principles |
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
14.3.2 Inverter Configurations |
|
|
681 | (2) |
|
14.3.3 Parallel capacitor as a dc-dc Soft Switching Element |
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
14.4 Soft switching in dc-dc Converters |
|
|
684 | (12) |
|
14.4.1 Description of Quasi-resonance |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
14.4.2 Zero-Current Switching Transistor Action |
|
|
685 | (6) |
|
14.4.3 Zero-Voltage Switching Transistor Action |
|
|
691 | (5) |
|
14.5 Resonance Used for Control— Forward Converters |
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
|
697 | (5) |
|
14.6.1 Limitations of Antiresonant Filters |
|
|
697 | (2) |
|
14.6.2 Creating an ac Link for a dc—dc Converter |
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
14.6.3 Resonant Boost Converter for Solar Application |
|
|
699 | (3) |
|
14.7 Application Discussion |
|
|
702 | (1) |
|
|
702 | (3) |
|
|
705 | (5) |
|
|
710 | (2) |
|
Chapter 15 Hysteresis and Geometric Control for Power Converters |
|
|
712 | (39) |
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
|
713 | (14) |
|
15.2.1 Definition and Basic Behavior |
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
15.2.2 Hysteresis Control in dc—dc Converters |
|
|
714 | (7) |
|
15.2.3 Hysteresis Power Factor Correction Control |
|
|
721 | (4) |
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
15.3 Switching Boundary Control |
|
|
727 | (7) |
|
15.3.1 Behavior Near a Switching Boundary |
|
|
727 | (2) |
|
|
729 | (1) |
|
15.3.3 Choosing a Switching Boundary |
|
|
730 | (4) |
|
15.4 Frequency Control in Geometric Methods |
|
|
734 | (2) |
|
|
736 | (6) |
|
15.5.1 Designing Hysteresis Controllers |
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
15.5.2 Switching Boundary Control Combination for Battery Charging Management |
|
|
737 | (3) |
|
15.5.3 Boost Converter with Switching Boundary Control |
|
|
740 | (2) |
|
15.6 Application Discussion |
|
|
742 | (1) |
|
|
742 | (2) |
|
|
744 | (3) |
|
|
747 | |
Appendices |
|
|
A Some Useful Trigonometric Identities |
|
|
751 | (2) |
|
|
753 | (4) |
|
|
757 | (8) |
|
|
765 | (8) |
Index |
|
773 | |