| Contents By Subject Area |
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xxiii | |
| Contributors |
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xxv | |
| Guide to the Encyclopedia |
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xxix | |
| Preface |
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xxxi | |
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1 | (1) |
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Food availability in caves |
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1 | (1) |
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Diverse adaptations to low food |
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2 | (4) |
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See Also the Following Articles |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (2) |
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2 Adaptations: Low oxygen |
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8 | (1) |
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Supply and consumption of do in groundwater |
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8 | (1) |
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Small-scale heterogeneity in do in groundwater |
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9 | (1) |
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Field evidence of survival in low oxygenated groundwater |
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10 | (1) |
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Survival times under anoxia |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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Imbrication of adaptive strategies to low food resources and low oxygen supply |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (2) |
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Darkness as key driver of troglomorphic trait modifications |
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16 | (1) |
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Direct and indirect adaptations to the darkness of caves |
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17 | (1) |
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Constructive vs regressive troglomorphic traits |
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17 | (1) |
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Troglomorphic model species |
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18 | (1) |
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Positive and relaxed selection in troglomorphic trait evolution |
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18 | (1) |
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Positive and relaxed selection in troglomorphic eye loss |
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19 | (1) |
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Preservation of extraretinal light sensitivity in troglomorphs |
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19 | (1) |
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Positive vs relaxed selection in the regression of body pigmentation |
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19 | (1) |
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Biological rhythms in troglobites |
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20 | (1) |
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Regressive and constructive evolution of UV light tolerance |
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20 | (1) |
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Sustainability and reversibility of troglomorphism |
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21 | (1) |
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Convergent troglomorphic trait evolution in other light-insulated environments |
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21 | (1) |
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Cave-adaptive evolution in nonanimal clades |
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22 | (1) |
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22 | (2) |
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4 Adaptations: Behavioral |
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24 | (1) |
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Behavioral evolution in the cave---how behaviors differ between cave species and their epigean relatives |
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24 | (4) |
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How and why do behaviors evolve in the cave? |
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28 | (4) |
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32 | (1) |
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5 Adaptation: Morphological |
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33 | (1) |
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Model systems for studying patterns and procsesses |
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33 | (1) |
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Reductive troglomorphoses |
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34 | (2) |
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Constructive troglomorphoses |
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36 | (2) |
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Environmental drivers of morphological evolution |
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38 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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Selection-function relationship |
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38 | (1) |
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39 | (1) |
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39 | (1) |
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6 Adaptation and natural selection in caves |
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40 | (1) |
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The action of natural selection in caves |
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41 | (1) |
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The selective regime in caves |
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42 | (2) |
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The role of natural selection in colonization and speciation |
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44 | (1) |
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45 | (1) |
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45 | (2) |
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47 | (1) |
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Factors underlying adaptive shifts into cave habitats |
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47 | (2) |
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49 | (5) |
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54 | (1) |
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55 | (1) |
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55 | (1) |
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8 Anchihaline (Anchialine) caves and fauna |
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56 | (1) |
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Geography and some historical data |
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56 | (1) |
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Cave morphology and hydrology |
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57 | (1) |
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58 | (1) |
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Noncrustacean groups in the anchihaline fauna |
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58 | (1) |
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59 | (2) |
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61 | (1) |
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Biology and ecological distribution of inhabitants |
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62 | (1) |
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62 | (1) |
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Theoretical importance of anchihaline habitats |
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63 | (1) |
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Anchihaline fauna and humans |
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63 | (1) |
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64 | (1) |
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9 Ancient cavers in Eastern North America |
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65 | (1) |
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Cave archeology in Eastern North America |
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65 | (1) |
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Archeology of the Mammoth Cave area |
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65 | (1) |
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Prehistoric archeology in the world's longest cave |
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66 | (3) |
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69 | (1) |
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70 | (1) |
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71 | (1) |
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72 | (3) |
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75 | (1) |
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11 Asellus aquaticus: A model system for historical biogeography |
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Development of troglomorphies |
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76 | (1) |
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Postojna-planina cave system |
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77 | (2) |
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79 | (1) |
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80 | (1) |
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81 | (1) |
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82 | (2) |
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84 | (1) |
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12 Astyanax mexicanus: A vertebrate model for evolution, adaptation, and development in caves |
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Evolution, adaptation, and model organisms |
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85 | (1) |
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Astyanax mexicanus: A model cave vertebrate |
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85 | (1) |
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85 | (2) |
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87 | (3) |
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Developmental basis of troglomorphic traits |
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90 | (1) |
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Inheritance and genetic basis of troglomorphic traits |
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91 | (1) |
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Evolution of troglomorphic traits |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (1) |
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94 | (1) |
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95 | (3) |
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Importance of bats in caves |
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98 | (1) |
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Conservation of bats in caves |
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99 | (2) |
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101 | (1) |
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101 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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102 | (2) |
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104 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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Evolution and diversification |
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106 | (2) |
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108 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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15 Biodiversity patterns in Australia |
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109 | (1) |
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110 | (6) |
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116 | (5) |
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121 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (2) |
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125 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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127 | (1) |
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Biospeleological research |
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127 | (1) |
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Subterranean biodiversity |
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128 | (7) |
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135 | (1) |
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17 Biodiversity in Europe |
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136 | (1) |
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Diversity comparisons to other continents |
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136 | (2) |
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Taxonomic richness of the European subterranean fauna |
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138 | (1) |
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Troglomorphy and relictness |
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138 | (3) |
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Geographic patterns within Europe |
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141 | (4) |
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Assessing European biodiversity patterns for conservation |
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145 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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145 | (1) |
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18 Biodiversity in the tropics |
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146 | (1) |
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Current state of knowledge |
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146 | (2) |
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148 | (6) |
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Broad-scale patterns of troglobiont species richness |
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154 | (6) |
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Relictual versus nonrelictual taxa |
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160 | (1) |
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Conservation issues specific to tropical caves |
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160 | (2) |
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162 | (1) |
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19 Biodiversity in the United States and Canada |
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Distribution of karst, caves, and cave biodiversity |
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163 | (4) |
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Species diversity: Invertebrates |
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167 | (6) |
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Species diversity: Vertebrates |
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173 | (2) |
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175 | (1) |
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176 | (1) |
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20 Biodiversity in South America |
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177 | (7) |
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Aquatic subterranean faunas |
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184 | (2) |
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186 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (2) |
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189 | (2) |
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Geologic Influences on breakdown processes |
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191 | (2) |
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Role of breakdown in speleological processes |
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193 | (2) |
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194 | (1) |
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22 Burnsville Cove, Virginia |
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195 | (1) |
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Physical and geologic setting |
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195 | (1) |
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196 | (2) |
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198 | (7) |
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205 | (1) |
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206 | (5) |
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See Also the Following Article |
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211 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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24 Castleguard Cave, Canada |
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212 | (1) |
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212 | (4) |
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216 | (1) |
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216 | (1) |
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217 | (1) |
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217 | (1) |
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25 Cave dwellers in Southwest Asia |
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218 | (1) |
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Location and present environment |
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218 | (1) |
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Cave deposits and processes |
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219 | (1) |
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The prehistoric and historical sequence of cave occupations in the middle east |
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220 | (2) |
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222 | (1) |
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Definition and boundaries |
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223 | (1) |
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Physical environment and habitat zones |
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223 | (1) |
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Energy flux and limitation |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (1) |
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Connectivity and disturbance in karst ecosystems |
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226 | (1) |
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See also the following articles |
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226 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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227 | (1) |
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227 | (2) |
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Co-occurrence of cavefishes |
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229 | (4) |
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233 | (1) |
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Troglomorphy in cavefishes |
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233 | (2) |
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235 | (2) |
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The distribution and diversity of Chinese cavefish |
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237 | (1) |
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Characteristics of Chinese cavefish |
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238 | (2) |
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The Chinese cavefish genome |
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240 | (1) |
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Morphology and genetic adaptation |
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240 | (11) |
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Phylogenesis, speciation mechanisms, and biogeography |
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251 | (2) |
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Research and conservation |
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253 | (1) |
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254 | (1) |
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Definitions and points of view |
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255 | (1) |
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255 | (2) |
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Caves as places for exploration |
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257 | (1) |
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257 | (1) |
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Caves as components of groundwater aquifers |
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258 | (1) |
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258 | (1) |
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259 | (1) |
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30 Caver communities and organizations: Cultural and historical considerations |
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260 | (1) |
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Characteristic formation history of caver organizations |
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260 | (1) |
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Land trusts, conservancies, and caver villages |
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261 | (1) |
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National caver communities |
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262 | (1) |
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Public and private cave enterprise communities |
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262 | (1) |
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Temporary caver events/communities |
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263 | (1) |
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Local and regional communities |
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263 | (1) |
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263 | (1) |
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Factors relevant to building cave land trusts and communities |
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263 | (1) |
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International caver communities and organizations |
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263 | (2) |
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Cultural considerations of caver communities and organizations |
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265 | (1) |
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265 | (1) |
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266 | (1) |
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267 | (1) |
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267 | (2) |
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Major chemolithoautotrophic microbial groups |
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269 | (2) |
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Chemolithoautotrophy in caves and karst settings |
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271 | (4) |
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Chemolithoautotrophically based cave ecosystems |
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275 | (1) |
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276 | (1) |
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32 Clastic sediments in caves |
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Basic physical properties |
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277 | (1) |
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278 | (2) |
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280 | (1) |
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Sediment transport and deposition |
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281 | (1) |
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282 | (1) |
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283 | (2) |
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33 Closed depressions in karst areas |
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Types of closed depressions |
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285 | (1) |
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Solution dolines as the diagnostic forms of karst surfaces |
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285 | (9) |
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294 | (3) |
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Uvalas and compound and polygenetic sinks |
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297 | (1) |
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Poljes: The largest closed depressions in karst areas |
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297 | (3) |
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300 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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302 | (3) |
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305 | (2) |
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307 | (1) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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Systematics and distribution |
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308 | (5) |
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313 | (3) |
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316 | (2) |
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318 | (1) |
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318 | (2) |
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36 Contamination of cave waters by heavy metals |
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Natural and anthropogenic sources |
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320 | (1) |
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Environmental metal chemistry |
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320 | (3) |
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Metal storage and transport |
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323 | (2) |
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325 | (1) |
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325 | (1) |
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37 Contamination of cave waters by nonaqueous-phase liquids |
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NAPL characteristics and sources |
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326 | (1) |
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Transport into karst aquifers |
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327 | (3) |
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Storage in karst aquifers |
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330 | (1) |
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Detection of NAPL in karst |
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331 | (1) |
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331 | (1) |
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331 | (2) |
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333 | (1) |
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333 | (14) |
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347 | (1) |
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39 Dating cave sediments with cosmogenic nuclides |
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348 | (1) |
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Relative versus absolute dating techniques |
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348 | (1) |
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Burial dating with cosmogenic nuclides |
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349 | (3) |
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352 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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40 Dinaric karst---Geography and geology |
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Traits of the Dinaric karst |
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353 | (3) |
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Structural geology of Dinarides |
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356 | (1) |
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Lithology of the Dinaric karst |
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357 | (1) |
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Karst features of the Dinaric karst |
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358 | (3) |
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361 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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41 Documentation and databases |
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363 | (1) |
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364 | (5) |
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369 | (3) |
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372 | (1) |
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372 | (1) |
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372 | (4) |
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42 Ecological and evolutionary classifications of subterranean organisms |
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376 | (1) |
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377 | (1) |
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Evolutionary classifications |
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377 | (2) |
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How useful is the existing terminology? |
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379 | (1) |
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379 | (1) |
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380 | (1) |
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380 | (4) |
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Statistics of cave entrances |
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384 | (2) |
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386 | (1) |
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Entrances as paleontological and archeological sites |
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386 | (1) |
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386 | (1) |
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44 Environmental DNA as a conservation tool |
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The power of environmental DNA |
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387 | (1) |
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388 | (3) |
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Challenges associated with groundwater and other subterranean habitats |
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391 | (1) |
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392 | (1) |
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392 | (2) |
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394 | (1) |
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Epikarst, a necessary concept |
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394 | (1) |
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Epikarst, a not yet fully agreed concept |
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395 | (1) |
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How does the epikarst work? |
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395 | (1) |
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Place of epikarst in karst evolution and morphology |
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396 | (1) |
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The epikarst, the skin of the karst |
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397 | (1) |
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397 | (2) |
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399 | (1) |
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399 | (1) |
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399 | (2) |
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401 | (2) |
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Estimating total species richness of epikarst copepods |
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403 | (1) |
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404 | (1) |
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Biogeography of epikarst species |
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404 | (1) |
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Ecology of epikarst species |
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405 | (1) |
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See also the following articles |
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406 | (1) |
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406 | (1) |
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47 Exploration of caves---General |
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Skill levels in cave exploration |
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407 | (1) |
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408 | (2) |
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410 | (1) |
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Large systems: Project caving and expedition caving |
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411 | (1) |
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Water and underwater caving |
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411 | (1) |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (1) |
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412 | (7) |
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48 Exploration of caves: Underwater exploration |
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419 | (1) |
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49 Exploration of caves---Vertical caving techniques |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (1) |
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420 | (2) |
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422 | (1) |
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422 | (1) |
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423 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
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424 | (1) |
|
Vertical from the bottom up |
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425 | (1) |
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425 | (4) |
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|
50 Folklore, myth, and legend, caves in |
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|
Sources of allochthonous energy |
|
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429 | (1) |
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429 | (2) |
|
Transport by movement of animals |
|
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431 | (2) |
|
Passive transport by gravity or wind |
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433 | (1) |
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433 | (1) |
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434 | (1) |
|
52 The Frasassi Caves, Italy |
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435 | (1) |
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435 | (2) |
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437 | (2) |
|
Biology and biogeochemistry |
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439 | (2) |
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441 | (2) |
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443 | (1) |
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444 | (3) |
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447 | (1) |
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447 | (1) |
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448 | (1) |
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449 | (2) |
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54 Gammarus minus: A model system for the study of adaptation to the cave environment |
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|
Adaptation to the cave environment |
|
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451 | (1) |
|
General hypotheses on the mechanism of adaptation to the cave environment |
|
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451 | (1) |
|
Criteria for the study of adaptation to the cave environment |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
General ecology of Gammarus minus |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
Variation in Gammarus minus |
|
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453 | (2) |
|
Population structure of Gammarus minus |
|
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455 | (1) |
|
Origin of troglomorphic cave populations of Gammarus minus |
|
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456 | (1) |
|
Gammarus minus as a model system |
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457 | (1) |
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457 | (2) |
|
55 Geophysics for locating karst and caves |
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459 | (1) |
|
Electrical resistivity imaging |
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459 | (2) |
|
Audio-magnetotelluric soundings |
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461 | (1) |
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461 | (1) |
|
Seismic modeling techniques |
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462 | (1) |
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462 | (1) |
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462 | (1) |
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463 | (1) |
|
Transient electromagnetics |
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464 | (1) |
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464 | (1) |
|
Case study--New mexico brine well caverns |
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464 | (2) |
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466 | (1) |
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466 | (2) |
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468 | (1) |
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Processes of glacier cave formation |
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469 | (1) |
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469 | (3) |
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472 | (1) |
|
Exploration of glacier caves |
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472 | (1) |
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473 | (1) |
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|
Guano: Definitions and importance |
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474 | (1) |
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Physical-chemical properties |
|
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475 | (1) |
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475 | (2) |
|
Taxon-specific patterns and preference for guano types |
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477 | (3) |
|
Ecology of guano invertebrate communities |
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480 | (2) |
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482 | (1) |
|
Impacts and conservation issues |
|
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483 | (1) |
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484 | (1) |
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484 | (1) |
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Occurrence of gypsum and types of gypsum karst |
|
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485 | (1) |
|
Implication of equilibrium chemistry and dissolution kinetics to speleogenesis in gypsum |
|
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486 | (1) |
|
Speleogenesis in different types of karst |
|
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487 | (7) |
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494 | (1) |
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494 | (1) |
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494 | (2) |
|
59 Gypsum flowers and related speleothems |
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|
Evaporite minerals in caves |
|
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496 | (1) |
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496 | (2) |
|
Sources and depositional mechanisms of evaporite minerals |
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498 | (4) |
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502 | (1) |
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|
60 Hang Son Doong and other caves of the Phong Nha-Ka Bang karst, Quang Binh Province, Vietnam |
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503 | (1) |
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503 | (1) |
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504 | (3) |
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507 | (1) |
|
Cave and karst development in the Bang massif |
|
|
507 | (2) |
|
Tectonics, passage levels, and time |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
River caves of the Kci Bang massif |
|
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509 | (3) |
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512 | (1) |
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512 | (2) |
|
61 Helictites and related speleothems |
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514 | (1) |
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514 | (1) |
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515 | (1) |
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515 | (3) |
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518 | (1) |
|
Subaqueous "helictite bushes" |
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519 | (1) |
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520 | (1) |
|
62 History: Caves and other underground spaces in medieval Britain and Ireland |
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521 | (1) |
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521 | (1) |
|
12th-century histories and caves: William of Newburgh |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
Another historian: Gerald of Wales |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Yet another historian or perhaps a satirist: Walter Map |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
The 13th century: Gervase of Tilbury |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
A 12th-century vision narrative: St. Patrick's Purgatory |
|
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525 | (1) |
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526 | (1) |
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526 | (1) |
|
63 Huautla cave system {Sistema Huautla), Mexico |
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527 | (2) |
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529 | (2) |
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531 | (1) |
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532 | (1) |
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533 | (1) |
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534 | (2) |
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536 | (1) |
|
64 Hydrogeology of Karst aquifers |
|
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|
|
|
537 | (1) |
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|
|
538 | (4) |
|
Characteristics of Karst aquifers |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Water supply and water quality |
|
|
543 | (2) |
|
|
|
545 | (1) |
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|
545 | (1) |
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|
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|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Settings of hydrothermal Karst |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Chemistry of fluids and processes of cave excavation |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
Morphology of hydrothermal caves |
|
|
548 | (2) |
|
|
|
550 | (1) |
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|
|
551 | (1) |
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551 | (5) |
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|
|
|
Scientific significance of ice in caves |
|
|
556 | (2) |
|
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|
558 | (1) |
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|
558 | (1) |
|
67 Iron formation caves: Genesis and ecology |
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|
|
Geology and morphology of iron formation caves |
|
|
559 | (1) |
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|
560 | (3) |
|
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563 | (1) |
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564 | (2) |
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566 | (1) |
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|
566 | (1) |
|
68 Isotopes in karst waters and cave sediments |
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|
567 | (2) |
|
An isotopic journey through a cave |
|
|
569 | (6) |
|
|
|
575 | (1) |
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|
575 | (2) |
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|
|
69 Jewel cave, South Dakota |
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|
577 | (1) |
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|
577 | (1) |
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578 | (2) |
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|
580 | (1) |
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|
581 | (1) |
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|
582 | (3) |
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|
585 | (1) |
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|
586 | (1) |
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|
586 | (1) |
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587 | (1) |
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|
587 | (1) |
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|
|
588 | (1) |
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|
588 | (1) |
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|
589 | (9) |
|
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|
598 | (1) |
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|
599 | (1) |
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|
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|
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|
|
600 | (1) |
|
|
|
600 | (3) |
|
Description of some karren features |
|
|
603 | (4) |
|
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|
607 | (1) |
|
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|
608 | (1) |
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|
609 | (1) |
|
|
|
609 | (4) |
|
|
|
613 | (3) |
|
Landscapes of mixed origins |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
Coastal karst, eogenetic karst, and mixing zone karst |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
|
|
617 | (1) |
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|
618 | (1) |
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|
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|
|
619 | (1) |
|
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
|
|
619 | (2) |
|
Description of Kazumura Cave |
|
|
621 | (3) |
|
|
|
624 | (2) |
|
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
74 Krubera (Voronja) cave |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
The Arabika Massif: Location and physiography |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
Krubera Cave and other deep caves in the Arabika Massif |
|
|
627 | (4) |
|
The Arabika Massif: Geology |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
The Arabika Massif: Hydrogeology |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Evolution of the deep cave system in Arabika |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
635 | (1) |
|
Ecology and composition of lampenflora |
|
|
636 | (2) |
|
Alteration of underground habitat |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
Control and restriction of lampenflora growth |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
|
|
640 | (2) |
|
76 Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
Stratigraphy and structure |
|
|
643 | (1) |
|
Regional/local hydrogeology |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
|
|
646 | (3) |
|
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
|
|
650 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
Growth rates, age, and size at maturity |
|
|
652 | (2) |
|
Number and size of offspring |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
Environmental drivers and confounding effects |
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
78 Magnetism of cave sediments |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Earth and sediment magnetism |
|
|
658 | (2) |
|
Paleomagnetism of clastic cave sediments |
|
|
660 | (2) |
|
Paleomagnetism of speleothems |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
Environmental magnetism of cave sediments |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
Importance of the magnetic record in caves |
|
|
662 | (2) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
79 Mammals and birds---vertebrate visitors |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Human impacts and conservation |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Open questions and new tools |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
80 Mammoth Cave System, Kentucky |
|
|
|
|
|
Recent and ongoing exploration |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
Prehistoric explorers and miners |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
|
|
670 | (2) |
|
Geographic and geologic setting |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Mammoth Cave passage patterns |
|
|
672 | (3) |
|
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
|
|
675 | (2) |
|
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
Magnet for international cave research |
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
81 Mapping subterranean biodiversity |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
Investigating spatial patterns |
|
|
679 | (2) |
|
|
|
681 | (4) |
|
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
General characteristics of ancient Maya cave utilization |
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
Antiquity of Maya cave use |
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
See also the following articles |
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
691 | (1) |
|
Microbial diversity and metabolism |
|
|
691 | (1) |
|
Major scientific advances in cave microbiology |
|
|
692 | (2) |
|
Microbial diversity of caves |
|
|
694 | (3) |
|
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
|
697 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
|
|
700 | (2) |
|
|
|
702 | (2) |
|
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
|
|
706 | (1) |
|
Phosphates, arsenates, and vanadates |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
|
|
709 | (1) |
|
85 Modeling of karst aquifers |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
710 | (1) |
|
Characterization of flow in karst aquifers |
|
|
710 | (1) |
|
Representation of flow in conduits |
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Response-function and lumped-parameter or reservoir models |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Equivalent porous media models |
|
|
713 | (2) |
|
Embedded discrete-feature models |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
Accommodation of partially filled conduits |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
|
|
716 | (1) |
|
86 Modeling the evolution of karst aquifers |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
717 | (1) |
|
|
|
717 | (2) |
|
|
|
719 | (2) |
|
Modeling the evolution of karst aquifers |
|
|
721 | (3) |
|
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
Taxonomic and biogeographic patterns of cave molluscs |
|
|
725 | (5) |
|
Comments on selected species |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
|
|
730 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Caves in the southern hills |
|
|
732 | (2) |
|
|
|
734 | (2) |
|
|
|
736 | (1) |
|
|
|
737 | (1) |
|
Gunung Mulu National Park |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
|
|
740 | (4) |
|
|
|
744 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
90 Niphargus---A model system for evolution and ecology |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
746 | (1) |
|
|
|
746 | (4) |
|
Part two Interactions within and between species |
|
|
750 | (1) |
|
Part three Comparative review of key elements |
|
|
751 | (3) |
|
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
|
|
754 | (2) |
|
91 Nitrate contamination in karst groundwater |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
Environmental concerns and nitrogen cycling in groundwater |
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
|
|
756 | (2) |
|
|
|
758 | (1) |
|
Nitrate contamination of springs |
|
|
758 | (1) |
|
Temporal variability of nitrate in karst aquifers |
|
|
759 | (1) |
|
Processes that result in losses of nitrate in karst groundwater |
|
|
759 | (1) |
|
Protecting groundwater resources |
|
|
759 | (1) |
|
|
|
759 | (2) |
|
92 Nullarbor Caves, Australia |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
761 | (1) |
|
|
|
761 | (2) |
|
Prehistory, history, and speleological history |
|
|
763 | (1) |
|
Origin and enlargement of the caves |
|
|
764 | (2) |
|
|
|
766 | (1) |
|
|
|
767 | (1) |
|
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
769 | (1) |
|
History and early exploration |
|
|
769 | (2) |
|
|
|
771 | (2) |
|
|
|
773 | (3) |
|
|
|
776 | (1) |
|
Speleogenesis and other research in the cave |
|
|
776 | (2) |
|
|
|
778 | (5) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
783 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
95 Paleoclimate records from speleothems |
|
|
|
Victor J. Polyak and Rhawn F. Denniston |
|
|
|
Introduction---Why speleothems for paleoclimate research |
|
|
784 | (1) |
|
Importance of absolute chronology---Dating techniques |
|
|
784 | (1) |
|
Contributions to paleoclimatology |
|
|
785 | (7) |
|
|
|
792 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
794 | (1) |
|
Types of cave deposits and examples |
|
|
795 | (9) |
|
Importance of fossil vertebrates from caves |
|
|
804 | (1) |
|
|
|
805 | (1) |
|
97 Passage growth and development |
|
|
|
|
|
Stages of cave development |
|
|
806 | (1) |
|
|
|
806 | (1) |
|
Development of cave patterns |
|
|
807 | (3) |
|
|
|
810 | (1) |
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810 | (1) |
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811 | (1) |
|
98 Postojna---Planina Cave System, Slovenia |
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812 | (5) |
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817 | (2) |
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819 | (1) |
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820 | (1) |
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820 | (2) |
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|
Threats to subterranean fauna |
|
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822 | (2) |
|
Intrinsic vulnerability of troglobionts and stygobionts |
|
|
824 | (1) |
|
Possibly extinct troglobionts and stygobionts |
|
|
825 | (1) |
|
International legislation to protect subterranean fauna |
|
|
825 | (1) |
|
National legislation to protect subterranean fauna |
|
|
826 | (1) |
|
Conservation assessments of subterranean fauna |
|
|
826 | (1) |
|
Impediments to the conservation and management of subterranean fauna |
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
Moving forward in the protection of subterranean biodiversity |
|
|
827 | (1) |
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828 | (2) |
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830 | (1) |
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831 | (1) |
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832 | (1) |
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833 | (1) |
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834 | (1) |
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835 | (1) |
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836 | (1) |
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836 | (2) |
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838 | (1) |
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838 | (1) |
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839 | (1) |
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839 | (1) |
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840 | (1) |
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841 | (1) |
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842 | (1) |
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842 | (1) |
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842 | (1) |
|
Anthropogenic pseudokarst |
|
|
842 | (1) |
|
Biologically created pseudokarst |
|
|
843 | (1) |
|
Additional pseudokarstic features and further considerations |
|
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844 | (4) |
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848 | (2) |
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102 Quartzite and quartz sandstone caves of South America |
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850 | (1) |
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851 | (4) |
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855 | (1) |
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856 | (2) |
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858 | (1) |
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859 | (1) |
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859 | (2) |
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|
Recreational caving definition |
|
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861 | (1) |
|
Nature of caving-associated risks in the unique cave environment |
|
|
861 | (1) |
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|
861 | (1) |
|
Contact with novices and moral obligation of cavers meeting novices in caves |
|
|
862 | (1) |
|
Urban caving, other voids, and not exactly caving |
|
|
862 | (1) |
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|
863 | (1) |
|
Photos of recreational cavers |
|
|
864 | (1) |
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|
864 | (2) |
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|
866 | (1) |
|
Factors contributing to the frequency of recreational visitation to specific caves or cave areas |
|
|
867 | (1) |
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|
|
868 | (1) |
|
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
Why is everyone not a caver? |
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
Recreational caving, lite |
|
|
869 | (1) |
|
Why do people continue to cave? |
|
|
869 | (1) |
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|
869 | (1) |
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|
870 | (1) |
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|
871 | (1) |
|
Troglomorphy in salamanders |
|
|
871 | (2) |
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|
873 | (10) |
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|
883 | (1) |
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|
883 | (1) |
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|
883 | (2) |
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|
|
Definitions and importance |
|
|
885 | (1) |
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|
885 | (2) |
|
|
|
887 | (1) |
|
Contrasting saltpeter mining with other cave sediment extraction |
|
|
888 | (1) |
|
|
|
888 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
889 | (1) |
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|
|
889 | (1) |
|
Groundwater flow direction |
|
|
889 | (1) |
|
Groundwater flow velocities |
|
|
889 | (2) |
|
Calculation of discharge and other parameters |
|
|
891 | (1) |
|
Uses and pitfalls of scallop discharge data |
|
|
892 | (2) |
|
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|
894 | (1) |
|
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|
895 | (1) |
|
107 Shallow subterranean habitats |
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896 | (1) |
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|
896 | (7) |
|
|
|
903 | (3) |
|
|
|
906 | (1) |
|
|
|
907 | (1) |
|
Evolutionary and biogeographic connections with other subterranean habitats |
|
|
907 | (1) |
|
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
A short history of show caves |
|
|
909 | (1) |
|
The environmental protection of show caves |
|
|
909 | (4) |
|
The development of a show cave |
|
|
913 | (1) |
|
Recommended international guidelines for the development and management of show caves |
|
|
914 | (7) |
|
Information on show caves in the world |
|
|
921 | (1) |
|
|
|
921 | (1) |
|
109 Siebenhengste cave system, Switzerland |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Geographical and geological setting |
|
|
922 | (1) |
|
|
|
922 | (1) |
|
Overview of the cave systems and history of their exploration |
|
|
923 | (5) |
|
Genesis and age of the cave systems |
|
|
928 | (3) |
|
|
|
931 | (1) |
|
Present and past fauna discovered in the caves |
|
|
932 | (1) |
|
|
|
932 | (1) |
|
|
|
932 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
934 | (6) |
|
Interactions among man and sinkholes |
|
|
940 | (2) |
|
Mitigating the damage produced by sinkholes |
|
|
942 | (1) |
|
|
|
942 | (1) |
|
111 Solution caves in regions of high-relief |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
943 | (1) |
|
General characteristics of caves in high-relief areas |
|
|
943 | (1) |
|
Why is it important to study caves in high-relief areas? |
|
|
944 | (1) |
|
|
|
944 | (2) |
|
|
|
946 | (7) |
|
|
|
953 | (1) |
|
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|
953 | (2) |
|
112 Solution caves in regions of moderate relief |
|
|
|
|
|
Characteristics of karst regions of moderate relief |
|
|
955 | (1) |
|
|
|
955 | (1) |
|
|
|
955 | (3) |
|
|
|
958 | (7) |
|
|
|
965 | (1) |
|
|
|
965 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
967 | (1) |
|
Predation and cannibalism and their effects on phenotypic variation |
|
|
967 | (1) |
|
|
|
968 | (1) |
|
Competition and ghost of competition past |
|
|
968 | (2) |
|
|
|
970 | (2) |
|
|
|
972 | (1) |
|
|
|
972 | (2) |
|
114 Speleogenesis---Hypogene |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
974 | (1) |
|
Basic concept and definition |
|
|
975 | (1) |
|
Diagenetic environments and hydrodynamics of the upper crust |
|
|
976 | (2) |
|
|
|
978 | (9) |
|
|
|
987 | (2) |
|
115 Speleogenesis: Telogenetic |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
989 | (1) |
|
From fracture to conduit: Evolution of one-dimensional fracture |
|
|
989 | (2) |
|
Evolution of conduit networks |
|
|
991 | (4) |
|
|
|
995 | (1) |
|
116 Speleothem deposition |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
996 | (1) |
|
The chemistry of precipitation and dissolution of calcite |
|
|
996 | (1) |
|
Precipitation rates from thin water layers |
|
|
997 | (1) |
|
Precipitation from water films in turbulent flow |
|
|
998 | (2) |
|
Morphology of regular stalagmites |
|
|
1000 | (3) |
|
A similarity rule of regular stalagmites |
|
|
1003 | (1) |
|
Growth of stalagmites under conditions variable with time |
|
|
1004 | (1) |
|
|
|
1005 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1006 | (1) |
|
Mechanisms for speleothem deposition |
|
|
1006 | (1) |
|
|
|
1007 | (6) |
|
|
|
1013 | (2) |
|
Speleothems in volcanic caves |
|
|
1015 | (2) |
|
Speleothems as paleoclimate archives |
|
|
1017 | (1) |
|
|
|
1017 | (1) |
|
118 Spiders and related groups |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
|
|
1019 | (1) |
|
|
|
1019 | (11) |
|
|
|
1030 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1031 | (1) |
|
|
|
1031 | (4) |
|
|
|
1035 | (4) |
|
Springs as water supplies |
|
|
1039 | (1) |
|
|
|
1040 | (1) |
|
|
|
1040 | (1) |
|
120 Stalactites and stalagmites |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1041 | (1) |
|
Mineralogy and processes of formation |
|
|
1041 | (3) |
|
|
|
1044 | (1) |
|
|
|
1044 | (2) |
|
Stalagmites as valuable archives of Earth's history |
|
|
1046 | (2) |
|
|
|
1048 | (1) |
|
|
|
1048 | (1) |
|
121 Submarine springs in coastal karst |
|
|
|
|
|
The Messinian crisis of salinity, a major geological event in the Mediterranean basin |
|
|
1049 | (1) |
|
Main consequences on karst aquifers |
|
|
1050 | (2) |
|
|
|
1052 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1053 | (1) |
|
Diagnostic features of sulfuric acid caves |
|
|
1053 | (1) |
|
|
|
1054 | (1) |
|
|
|
1055 | (1) |
|
|
|
1055 | (6) |
|
Relation of sulfuric acid caves to Mississippi valley-type ore deposits, uranium deposits, hydrocarbons, and reservoir porosity |
|
|
1061 | (1) |
|
|
|
1062 | (1) |
|
|
|
1062 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1063 | (1) |
|
|
|
1063 | (1) |
|
|
|
1063 | (1) |
|
Surveying the traverse line |
|
|
1064 | (3) |
|
|
|
1067 | (1) |
|
Preparing and displaying maps |
|
|
1067 | (2) |
|
|
|
1069 | (1) |
|
|
|
1069 | (1) |
|
|
|
1069 | (1) |
|
|
|
1069 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
124 Tiankeng, Definition of Xuewen Zhu, Weihai Chen and Yuanhai Zhang |
|
|
|
|
|
1071 | (1) |
|
|
|
1072 | (2) |
|
Distribution of tiankengs |
|
|
1074 | (1) |
|
|
|
1075 | (2) |
|
125 Time markers in landscape evolution, caves as |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1077 | (1) |
|
Caves and the water table |
|
|
1077 | (1) |
|
River incision and the record in caves |
|
|
1077 | (2) |
|
Landscape interpretation using multilevel caves |
|
|
1079 | (2) |
|
|
|
1081 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
126 Ukraine giant gypsum caves |
|
|
|
|
|
Regional geology and hydrogeology |
|
|
1082 | (1) |
|
Patterns and meso-morphology of caves |
|
|
1083 | (2) |
|
Cave sediments and speleothems |
|
|
1085 | (1) |
|
|
|
1085 | (3) |
|
|
|
1088 | (7) |
|
127 Underwater Caves of the Yucatan Peninsula |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1095 | (1) |
|
128 Uranium series dating of speleothems |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1096 | (1) |
|
Principles of U-series dating |
|
|
1096 | (1) |
|
Reporting and assessing U-Th ages |
|
|
1097 | (1) |
|
|
|
1098 | (2) |
|
Growth dynamics of speleothems |
|
|
1100 | (1) |
|
U-Pb dating of ancient speleothems |
|
|
1101 | (1) |
|
|
|
1102 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
129 Vicariance and dispersal in caves |
|
|
|
|
|
Cave biogeography is mostly historical |
|
|
1103 | (1) |
|
Vicariance and dispersal---two alternative explanations |
|
|
1103 | (1) |
|
The situation is more complex in caves |
|
|
1104 | (2) |
|
Large ranges of cave species are challenging to explain |
|
|
1106 | (1) |
|
|
|
1106 | (1) |
|
|
|
1107 | (1) |
|
|
|
1108 | (1) |
|
|
|
1109 | (1) |
|
130 Vjetrenica Cave, Bosnia and Herzegovina |
|
|
|
|
|
The karst area of Vjetrenica |
|
|
1110 | (1) |
|
Speleomorphology of Vjetrenica |
|
|
1110 | (3) |
|
|
|
1113 | (1) |
|
|
|
1113 | (1) |
|
|
|
1114 | (1) |
|
|
|
1114 | (1) |
|
|
|
1114 | (1) |
|
Exploration of Vjetrenica |
|
|
1115 | (1) |
|
|
|
1116 | (1) |
|
|
|
1116 | (1) |
|
|
|
1117 | (1) |
|
See Also the Following Article |
|
|
1117 | (1) |
|
|
|
1117 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1118 | (1) |
|
Secondary volcanic rock caves |
|
|
1118 | (1) |
|
Primary volcanic rock caves of large extent (pyroducts) |
|
|
1119 | (1) |
|
|
|
1120 | (2) |
|
|
|
1122 | (2) |
|
General types of pyroducts |
|
|
1124 | (1) |
|
Primary volcanic rock caves of limited extent |
|
|
1125 | (1) |
|
|
|
1126 | (1) |
|
|
|
1126 | (1) |
|
See Also the Following Articles |
|
|
1126 | (1) |
|
|
|
1127 | (1) |
|
|
|
|
132 Wakulla spring underwater cave system, Florida |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1128 | (1) |
|
|
|
1129 | (4) |
|
Exploration and mapping of Wakulla spring cave |
|
|
1133 | (2) |
|
|
|
1135 | (1) |
|
See Also the Following Article |
|
|
1135 | (1) |
|
|
|
1135 | (1) |
|
133 Water chemistry in caves |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1136 | (1) |
|
Limestone dissolution and the chemical evolution of cave waters |
|
|
1136 | (5) |
|
Precipitation of minerals and the formation of speleothems from cave waters |
|
|
1141 | (1) |
|
Human impact on cave waters |
|
|
1142 | (1) |
|
|
|
1142 | (2) |
|
134 Water tracing in karst aquifers |
|
|
|
|
|
Definitions and objectives of tracer tests in karst |
|
|
1144 | (1) |
|
History of water tracing in karst aquifers |
|
|
1144 | (2) |
|
|
|
1146 | (2) |
|
Qualitative tracing using passive detectors |
|
|
1148 | (3) |
|
Quantitative water tracing In karst areas |
|
|
1151 | (1) |
|
Interpretation of water tracing tests |
|
|
1152 | (2) |
|
See also the following articles |
|
|
1154 | (1) |
|
|
|
1154 | (2) |
|
135 Wetlands in cave and karst regions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1156 | (1) |
|
|
|
1157 | (1) |
|
|
|
1158 | (2) |
|
|
|
1160 | (3) |
|
Protection of karst wetlands |
|
|
1163 | (1) |
|
|
|
1163 | (2) |
|
136 White-nose syndrome: A fungal disease of North American hibernating bats |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1165 | (1) |
|
Initial bat mortality and the causative pathogen discovered |
|
|
1165 | (1) |
|
|
|
1166 | (2) |
|
Bat species affected by WNS |
|
|
1168 | (1) |
|
Characteristics of WNS in the host |
|
|
1169 | (1) |
|
Characteristics of fungal virulence and pathogenicity |
|
|
1170 | (2) |
|
|
|
1172 | (1) |
|
|
|
1172 | (1) |
|
|
|
1172 | (1) |
|
Cave closures and decontamination protocols |
|
|
1173 | (1) |
|
|
|
1173 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1175 | (1) |
|
|
|
1175 | (1) |
|
Brief characterization of invertebrate types considered worms |
|
|
1176 | (7) |
|
Ecological and phylogenetic remarks |
|
|
1183 | (1) |
|
|
|
1183 | (2) |
|
|
|
|
138 Xe Bang Fai Cave, Laos |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1185 | (1) |
|
|
|
1186 | (2) |
|
|
|
1188 | (3) |
|
|
|
1191 | (1) |
|
|
|
1192 | (1) |
| Index |
|
1193 | |
