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Environmental Aspects of Oil and Gas Production [Kõva köide]

,
  • Formaat: Hardback, 416 pages, kõrgus x laius x paksus: 252x191x28 mm, kaal: 907 g
  • Ilmumisaeg: 14-Jul-2017
  • Kirjastus: Wiley-Scrivener
  • ISBN-10: 1119117372
  • ISBN-13: 9781119117377
Teised raamatud teemal:
Environmental Aspects of Oil and Gas ProductionSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: Hardback, 416 pages, kõrgus x laius x paksus: 252x191x28 mm, kaal: 907 g
  • Ilmumisaeg: 14-Jul-2017
  • Kirjastus: Wiley-Scrivener
  • ISBN-10: 1119117372
  • ISBN-13: 9781119117377
Teised raamatud teemal:
Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9781119117377.html
Märksõnad:
Oil and gas still power the bulk of our world, from automobiles and the power plants that supply electricity to our homes and businesses, to jet fuel, plastics, and many other products that enrich our lives.  With the relatively recent development of hydraulic fracturing ("fracking"), multilateral, directional, and underbalanced drilling, and enhanced oil recovery, oil and gas production is more important and efficient than ever before.  Along with these advancements, as with any new engineering process or technology, come challenges, many of them environmental.

More than just a text that outlines the environmental challenges of oil and gas production that have always been there, such as gas migration and corrosion, this groundbreaking new volume takes on the most up-to-date processes and technologies involved in this field.  Filled with dozens of case studies and examples, the authors, two of the most well-known and respected petroleum engineers in the world, have outlined all of the major environmental aspects of oil and gas production and how to navigate them, achieving a more efficient, effective, and profitable operation. 

This groundbreaking volume is a must-have for any petroleum engineer working in the field, and for students and faculty in petroleum engineering departments worldwide.
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Environmental Concerns 1(16)
1.1 Introduction
1(2)
1.2 Evaluation Approach
3(1)
1.3 Gas Migration
3(4)
1.3.1 Paths of Migration for Gas
4(1)
1.3.2 Monitoring of Migrating Gases
4(2)
1.3.3 Identification of Biological vs. Thermogenic Gases
6(1)
1.4 Underground Gas Storage Facilities
7(2)
1.5 Subsidence
9(1)
1.6 Emissions of Carbon Dioxide and Methane
10(1)
1.7 Hydraulic Fracturing
11(2)
1.7.1 Orientation of the Fracture
12(1)
1.8 Oil Shale
13(1)
1.9 Corrosion
14(1)
1.10 Scaling
14(1)
1.11 Conclusion
15(1)
References and Bibliography
15(2)
2 Migration of Hydrocarbon Gases 17(88)
2.1 Introduction
17(3)
2.2 Geochemical Exploration for Petroleum
20(1)
2.3 Primary and Secondary Migration of Hydrocarbons
20(3)
2.3.1 Primary Gas Migration
21(1)
2.3.2 Secondary Gas Migration
22(1)
2.3.3 Gas Entrapment
22(1)
2.4 Origin of Migrating Hydrocarbon Gases
23(11)
2.4.1 Biogenic vs. Thermogenic Gas
24(3)
2.4.1.1 Sources of Migrating Gases
24(1)
2.4.1.2 Biogenic Methane
24(2)
2.4.1.3 Thermogenic Methane Gas
26(1)
2.4.2 Isotopic Values of Gases
27(3)
2.4.3 Nonhydrocarbon Gases
30(1)
2.4.4 Mixing of Gases
31(1)
2.4.5 Surface Gas Sampling
32(1)
2.4.6 Summary
33(1)
2.5 Driving Force of Gas Movement
34(15)
2.5.1 Density of a Hydrocarbon Gas under Pressure
34(1)
2.5.2 Sample Problem (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company)
35(3)
2.5.3 Other Methods of Computing Natural Gas Compressibility
38(2)
2.5.4 Density of Water
40(1)
2.5.5 Petrophysical Parameters Affecting Gas Migration
41(1)
2.5.6 Porosity, Void Ratio, and Density
42(4)
2.5.7 Permeability
46(2)
2.5.8 Free and Dissolved Gas in Fluid
48(1)
2.5.9 Quantity of Dissolved Gas in Water
48(1)
2.6 Types of Gas Migration
49(12)
2.6.1 Molecular Diffusion Mechanism
49(3)
2.6.2 Discontinuous-Phase Migration of Gas
52(2)
2.6.3 Minimum Height of Gas Column Necessary to Initiate Upward Gas Movement
54(1)
2.6.4 Buoyant Flow
54(2)
2.6.5 Sample Problem (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company)
56(1)
2.6.6 Gas Columns
56(2)
2.6.7 Sample Problem 2.2 (Courtesy of Gulf Publishing Company)
58(1)
2.6.8 Continuous-Phase Gas Migration
59(2)
2.7 Paths of Gas Migration Associated with Oilwells
61(8)
2.7.1 Natural Paths of Gas Migration
63(1)
2.7.2 Man-Made Paths of Gas Migration (boreholes)
64(2)
2.7.2.1 Producing Wells
65(1)
2.7.2.2 Abandoned Wells
66(1)
2.7.2.3 Repressured Wells
66(1)
2.7.3 Creation of Induced Fractures during Drilling
66(3)
2.8 Wells Leaking Due to Cementing Failure
69(5)
2.8.1 Breakdown of Cement
69(1)
2.8.2 Cement Isolation Breakdown (Shrinkage-Circumferential Fractures)
70(1)
2.8.3 Improper Placement of Cement
71(3)
2.9 Environmental Hazards of Gas Migration
74(4)
2.9.1 Explosive Nature of Gas
74(1)
2.9.2 Toxicity of Hydrocarbon Gas
75(3)
2.10 Migration of Gas from Petroleum Wellbores
78(1)
2.10.1 Effect of Seismic Activity
78(1)
2.11 Case Histories of Gas Migration Problems
79(18)
2.11.1 Inglewood Oilfield, CA
80(1)
2.11.2 Los Angeles City Oilfield, CA
81(2)
2.11.2.1 Belmont High School Construction
81(2)
2.11.3 Montebello Oilfield, CA
83(1)
2.11.3.1 Montebello Underground Gas Storage
84(1)
2.11.4 Playa Del Rey Oilfield, CA
84(2)
2.11.4.1 Playa del Rey underground Gas Storage
84(2)
2.11.5 Salt Lake Oilfield, CA
86(3)
2.11.5.1 Ross Dress for Less Department Store Explosion/Fire, Los Angeles, CA
87(1)
2.11.5.2 Gilmore Bank
88(1)
2.11.5.3 South Salt Lake Oilfield Gas Seeps from Gas Injection Project
89(1)
2.11.5.4 Wilshire and Curson Gas Seep, Los Angeles, CA, 1999
89(1)
2.11.6 Santa Fe Springs Oilfield, CA
89(2)
2.11.7 El Segundo Oilfield, CA
91(1)
2.11.8 Honor Rancho and Tapia Oilfields, CA
91(1)
2.11.9 Sylmar, CA - Tunnel Explosion
91(1)
2.11.10 Hutchinson, KS - Explosion and Fires
91(2)
2.11.11 Huntsman Gas Storage, NE
93(2)
2.11.12 Mont Belvieu Gas Storage Field, TX
95(1)
2.11.13 Leroy Gas Storage Facility, WY
95(2)
2.12 Conclusions
97(1)
References and Bibliography
98(7)
3 Subsidence as a Result of Gas/Oil/Water Production 105(82)
3.1 Introduction
105(3)
3.2 Theoretical Compaction Models
108(3)
3.3 Theoretical Modeling of Compaction
111(8)
3.3.1 Terzaghi's Compaction Model
112(3)
3.3.2 Athy's Compaction Model
115(1)
3.3.3 Hedberg's Compaction Model
115(1)
3.3.4 Weller's Compaction Model
116(1)
3.3.5 Teodorovich and Chernov's Compaction Model
117(1)
3.3.6 Beall's Compaction Model
118(1)
3.3.7 Katz and Ibrahim Compaction Model
118(1)
3.4 Subsidence Over Oilfields
119(11)
3.4.1 Rate of Subsidence
121(1)
3.4.2 Effect of Earthquakes on Subsidence
122(1)
3.4.3 Stress and Strain Distribution in Subsiding Areas
122(3)
3.4.4 Calculation of Subsidence in Oilfields
125(3)
3.4.5 Permeability Seals for Confined Aquifers
128(1)
3.4.6 Fissures Caused by Subsidence
128(2)
3.5 Case Studies of Subsidence over Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
130(48)
3.5.1 Los Angeles Basin, CA, Oilfields, Inglewood Oilfield, CA
130(4)
3.5.1.1 Baldwin Hills Dam Failure
131(3)
3.5.1.2 Proposed Housing Development
134(1)
3.5.2 Los Angeles City Oilfield, CA
134(2)
3.5.2.1 Belmont High School Construction
134(2)
3.5.3 Playa Del Rey Oilfield, CA
136(2)
3.5.3.1 Playa Del Rey Marina Subsidence
137(1)
3.5.4 Torrance Oilfield, CA
138(1)
3.5.5 Redondo Beach Marina Area, CA
138(1)
3.5.6 Salt Lake Oilfield, CA
139(1)
3.5.7 Santa Fe Springs Oilfield, CA
140(1)
3.5.8 Wilmington Oilfield, Long Beach, CA
141(11)
3.5.9 North Stavropol Oilfield, Russia
152(5)
3.5.10 Subsidence over Venezuelan Oilfields
157(9)
3.5.10.1 Subsidence in the Bolivar Coastal Oilfields of Venezuela
158(2)
3.5.10.2 Subsidence of Facilities
160(6)
3.5.11 Po-Veneto Plain, Italy
166(7)
3.5.11.1 Po Delta
167(6)
3.5.12 Subsidence Over the North Sea Ekofisk Oilfield
173(4)
3.5.12.1 Production
174(1)
3.5.12.2 Ekofisk Field Description
175(2)
3.5.12.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery Projects
177(1)
3.5.13 Platform Sinking
177(1)
3.6 Concluding Remarks
178(1)
References and Bibliography
179(8)
4 Effect of Emission of CO2 and CH4 into the Atmosphere 187(24)
4.1 Introduction
187(2)
4.2 Historic Geologic Evidence
189(8)
4.2.1 Historic Record of Earth's Global Temperature
189(2)
4.2.2 Effect of Atmospheric Carbon Content on Global Temperature
191(3)
4.2.3 Sources of CO2
194(3)
4.3 Adiabatic Theory
197(10)
4.3.1 Modeling the Planet Earth
197(1)
4.3.2 Modeling the Planet Venus
198(5)
4.3.3 Anthropogenic Carbon Effect on the Earth's Global Temperature
203(1)
4.3.4 Methane Gas Emissions
204(2)
4.3.5 Monitoring of Methane Gas Emissions
206(1)
References
207(4)
5 Fracking 211(58)
5.1 Introduction
211(1)
5.2 Studies Supporting Hydraulic Fracturing
211(1)
5.3 Studies Opposing Hydraulic Fracturing
212(1)
5.4 The Fracking Debate
213(1)
5.5 Production
214(3)
5.5.1 Conventional Reservoirs
214(1)
5.5.2 Unconventional Reservoirs
214(3)
5.6 Fractures: Their Orientation and Length
217(1)
5.6.1 Fracture Orientation
217(1)
5.6.2 Fracture Length/Height
218(1)
5.7 Casing and Cementing
218(1)
5.8 Blowouts
219(1)
5.8.1 Surface Blowouts
219(1)
5.8.2 Subsurface Blowouts
219(1)
5.9 Horizontal Drilling
220(1)
5.10 Fracturing and the Groundwater Contamination
220(1)
5.11 Pre-Drill Assessment
220(2)
5.12 Basis of Design
222(1)
5.13 Well Construction
222(5)
5.13.1 Drilling
222(3)
5.13.2 Completion
225(1)
5.13.3 Well Operations
225(1)
5.13.4 Well Plug and Abandonment P&A
226(1)
5.14 Summary
227(1)
5.15 Failure and Contamination Reduction
227(3)
5.15.1 Conduct Environmental Sampling Before and During Operations
227(1)
5.15.2 Disclose the Chemicals Used in Fracking Operations
227(1)
5.15.3 Ensure that Wellbore Casings are Properly Designed and Constructed
228(1)
5.15.4 Eliminate Venting and Work toward Green Completions
228(1)
5.15.5 Prevent Flowback Spillage/Leaks
228(1)
5.15.6 Dispose/Recycle Flowback Properly
228(1)
5.15.7 Minimize Noise and Dust
229(1)
5.15.8 Protect Workers and Drivers
229(1)
5.15.9 Communicate and Engage
229(1)
5.15.10 Record and Document
230(1)
5.16 Frack Fluids
230(1)
5.17 Common Fracturing Additives
231(1)
5.18 Typical Percentages of Commonly Used Additives
232(1)
5.19 Chemicals Used in Fracking
233(2)
5.20 Proppants
235(3)
5.20.1 Silica Sand
236(1)
5.20.2 Resin-Coated Proppant
237(1)
5.20.3 Manufactured Ceramics Proppants
238(1)
5.20.4 Other Types of Proppants
238(1)
5.21 Slickwater
238(1)
5.22 Direction of Flow of Frack Fluids
239(1)
5.23 Subsurface Contamination of Groundwater
239(3)
5.23.1 Water Analysis
240(2)
5.23.2 Possible Sources of Methane in Water Wells
242(1)
5.24 Spills
242(1)
5.24.1 Documentation
243(1)
5.25 Other Surface Impacts
243(1)
5.26 Land Use Permits
243(1)
5.27 Water Usage and Management
244(2)
5.27.1 Flowback Water
245(1)
5.27.2 Produced Water
245(1)
5.27.3 Flowback and Produced Water Management
245(1)
5.28 Earthquakes
246(1)
5.29 Induced Seismic Event
246(1)
5.30 Wastewater Disposal Wells
247(1)
5.31 Site Remediation
247(1)
5.31.1 Regulatory Oversight
247(1)
5.31.2 Federal Level Oversight
248(1)
5.31.3 State Level Oversight
248(1)
5.31.4 Municipal Level Oversight
248(1)
5.32 Examples of Legislation and Regulations
248(1)
5.33 Frack Fluid Makeup Reporting
249(1)
5.33.1 FracFocus
250(1)
5.34 Atmospheric Emissions
250(2)
5.35 Air Emissions Controls
252(2)
5.35.1 Common Sources of Air Emissions
253(1)
5.35.2 Fugitive Air Emissions
253(1)
5.36 Silica Dust
254(1)
5.36.1 Stationary Sources
254(1)
5.37 The Clean Air Act
255(1)
5.38 Regulated Pollutants
255(2)
5.38.1 NAAQS Criteria Pollutants
256(1)
5.39 Attainment versus Non-attainment
257(1)
5.40 Types of Federal Regulations
257(1)
5.41 MACT/NESHAP
257(1)
5.42 NSPS Regulations: 40 CFR Part 60
258(2)
5.42.1 NSPS Subpart 0000
258(1)
5.42.2 Facilities/Activities Affected by NSPS 0000
258(2)
5.43 Construction and Operating New Source Review Permits
260(1)
5.44 Title V Permits
260(1)
5.45 Chemicals and Products on Locations
260(3)
5.46 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
263(1)
5.47 Contents of an MSDS
263(1)
5.48 Conclusion
264(1)
State Agency Web Addresses
264(1)
References
265(1)
Bibliography
266(3)
6 Corrosion 269(60)
6.1 Introduction
269(1)
6.2 Definitions
270(3)
6.2.1 Corrosion
270(1)
6.2.2 Electrochemistry
270(1)
6.2.3 Electric Potential
271(1)
6.2.4 Electric Current
271(1)
6.2.5 Resistance
271(1)
6.2.6 Electric Charge
271(1)
6.2.7 Electrical Energy
271(1)
6.2.8 Electric Power
272(1)
6.2.9 Corrosion Agents
272(1)
6.3 Electrochemical Corrosion
273(7)
6.3.1 Components of Electrochemical Corrosion
277(3)
6.3.1.1 Electromotive Force Series
277(2)
6.3.1.2 Actual Electrode Potentials
279(1)
6.4 Galvanic Series
280(9)
6.4.1 Cathode/anode Area Ratio
280(1)
6.4.2 Polarization
280(1)
6.4.3 Corrosion of Iron
280(3)
6.4.4 Gaseous Corrodents
283(3)
6.4.4.1 Oxygen
283(1)
6.4.4.2 Hydrogen Sulfide
284(2)
6.4.4.3 Carbon Dioxide
286(1)
6.4.5 Alkalinity of Environment
286(1)
6.4.6 The influence of pH on the Rate of Corrosion
287(1)
6.4.7 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria
287(1)
6.4.8 Corrosion in Gas-Condensate Wells
288(1)
6.5 Types of Corrosion
289(4)
6.5.1 Sweet Corrosion
290(2)
6.5.2 Sour Corrosion
292(1)
6.6 Classes of Corrosion
293(2)
6.6.1 Uniform Attack
293(1)
6.6.2 Crevice Corrosion
294(1)
6.6.3 Pitting Corrosion
294(1)
6.6.4 Intergranular Corrosion
294(1)
6.6.5 Galvanic or Two-metal Corrosion
294(1)
6.6.6 Selective Leaching
294(1)
6.6.7 Cavitation Corrosion
294(1)
6.6.8 Erosion-corrosion
295(1)
6.6.9 Corrosion Due to Variation in Fluid Flow
295(1)
6.6.10 Stress Corrosion
295(1)
6.7 Stress-Induced Corrosion
295(3)
6.7.1 Cracking in Drilling and Producing Environments
296(2)
6.7.1.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement (Sulfide Cracking)
297(1)
6.7.1.2 Corrosion Fatigue
297(1)
6.8 Microbial Corrosion
298(9)
6.8.1 Microbes Associated with Oilfield Corrosion
302(1)
6.8.2 Microbial Interaction with Produced Oil
303(1)
6.8.3 Microorganisms in Corrosion
303(2)
6.8.3.1 Prokaryotes
303(2)
6.8.3.2 Eukaryotes
305(1)
6.8.4 Different Mechanisms of Microbial Corrosion
305(1)
6.8.5 Corrosion Inhibition by Bacteria
305(1)
6.8.6 Microbial Corrosion Control
306(1)
6.9 Corrosion Related to Oilfield Production
307(14)
6.9.1 Corrosion of Pipelines and Casing
307(1)
6.9.2 Casing Corrosion Inspection Tools
308(1)
6.9.3 Electromagnetic Corrosion Detection
309(1)
6.9.4 Methods of Corrosion Measurement
309(1)
6.9.5 Acoustic Tool
309(1)
6.9.6 Potential Profile Curves
310(1)
6.9.7 Protection of Casing and Pipelines
310(2)
6.9.8 Casing Leaks
312(1)
6.9.9 Cathodic Protection
312(3)
6.9.10 Structure Potential Measurement
315(1)
6.9.11 Soil Resistivity Measurements
315(2)
6.9.12 Interaction between an Old and a New Pipeline
317(1)
6.9.13 Corrosion of Offshore Structures
318(2)
6.9.14 Galvanic vs. Imposed Direct Electrical Current
320(1)
6.10 Economics and Preventitive Methods
321(1)
6.11 Corrosion Rate Measurement Units
322(1)
References and Bibliography
322(7)
7 Scaling 329(22)
7.1 Introduction
329(1)
7.2 Sources of Scale
330(2)
7.3 Formation of Scale
332(2)
7.4 Hardness and Alkalinity
334(1)
7.5 Common Oilfield Scale Scenarios
334(5)
7.5.1 Formation of a Scale
334(2)
7.5.2 Calcium Carbonate Scale Formation
336(2)
7.5.3 Sulfate Scale Formation
338(1)
7.6 Prediction of Scale Formation
339(6)
7.6.1 Prediction of CaSO4 Deposition
341(1)
7.6.2 Prediction of CaCO3 Deposition
342(3)
7.7 Solubility of Calcite, Dolomite, Magnesite and Their Mixtures
345(1)
7.8 Scale Removal
345(2)
7.9 Scale Inhibition
347(1)
7.10 Conclusions
348(1)
References and Bibliography
348(3)
Appendix A 351(26)
About the Authors 377(2)
Author Index 379(8)
Subject Index 387
John O. Robertson, PhD, is the owner of Earth Engineering, Inc. and an adjunct professor at ITT Tech in National City, CA. He has over 50 years of experience in petroleum and environmental engineering and geology and is the author of over 12 textbooks and 75 articles.

George V. Chilingar, PhD, is an Emeritus Professor of Engineering at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, CA. He is one of the most well-known petroleum geologists in the world and the founder of several prestigious journals in the oil and gas industry. He has published over 70 books and 500 articles and has received over 100 awards over his career.