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Chapter 1 Cells: The Fundamental Units of Life |
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1 | (38) |
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Unity and Diversity of Cells |
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2 | (1) |
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Cells Vary Enormously in Appearance and Function |
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2 | (1) |
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Living Cells All Have a Similar Basic Chemistry |
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3 | (1) |
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All Present-Day Cells Have Apparently Evolved from the Same Ancestral Cell |
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4 | (1) |
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Genes Provide the Instructions for Cell Form, Function, and Complex Behavior |
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5 | (1) |
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Cells Under the Microscope |
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5 | (1) |
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The Invention of the Light Microscope Led to the Discovery of Cells |
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6 | (1) |
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Light Microscopes Allow Examination of Cells and Some of Their Components |
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7 | (1) |
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The Fine Structure of a Cell Is Revealed by Electron Microscopy |
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8 | (4) |
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12 | (1) |
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Prokaryotes Are the Most Diverse and Numerous Cells on Earth |
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13 | (2) |
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The World of Prokaryotes Is Divided into Two Domains: Bacteria and Archaea |
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15 | (1) |
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15 | (1) |
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The Nucleus Is the Information Store of the Cell |
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15 | (1) |
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Mitochondria Generate Usable Energy from Food to Power the Cell |
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16 | (2) |
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Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight |
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18 | (1) |
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Internal Membranes Create Intracellular Compartments with Different Functions |
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19 | (2) |
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The Cytosol Is a Concentrated Aqueous Gel of Large and Small Molecules |
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21 | (1) |
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The Cytoskeleton Is Responsible for Directed Cell Movements |
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21 | (1) |
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The Cytoplasm Is Far from Static |
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22 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic Cells May Have Originated as Predators |
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23 | (3) |
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26 | (1) |
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Molecular Biologists Have Focused on E. coli |
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27 | (1) |
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Brewer's Yeast Is a Simple Eukaryotic Cell |
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27 | (1) |
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Arabidopsis Has Been Chosen as a Model Plant |
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28 | (1) |
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Model Animals Include Flies, Fish, Worms, and Mice |
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28 | (4) |
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Biologists Also Directly Study Human Beings and Their Cells |
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32 | (1) |
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Comparing Genome Sequences Reveals Life's Common Heritage |
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33 | (2) |
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Genomes Contain More Than Just Genes |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (2) |
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37 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 Chemical Components of Cells |
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39 | (44) |
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40 | (1) |
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Cells Are Made of Relatively Few Types of Atoms |
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40 | (1) |
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The Outermost Electrons Determine How Atoms Interact |
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41 | (3) |
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Covalent Bonds Form by the Sharing of Electrons |
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44 | (1) |
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There Are Different Types of Covalent Bonds |
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45 | (1) |
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Covalent Bonds Vary in Strength |
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46 | (1) |
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Ionic Bonds Form by the Gain and Loss of Electrons |
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46 | (1) |
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Noncovalent Bonds Help Bring Molecules Together in Cells |
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47 | (1) |
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Hydrogen Bonds Are Important Noncovalent Bonds For Many Biological Molecules |
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48 | (1) |
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Some Polar Molecules Form Acids and Bases in Water |
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49 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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A Cell Is Formed from Carbon Compounds |
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50 | (1) |
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Cells Contain Four Major Families of Small Organic Molecules |
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51 | (1) |
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Sugars Are Both Energy Sources and Subunits of Polysaccharides |
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52 | (1) |
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Fatty Acid Chains Are Components of Cell Membranes |
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53 | (2) |
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Amino Acids Are the Subunits of Proteins |
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55 | (1) |
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Nucleotides Are the Subunits of DNA and RNA |
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56 | (2) |
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58 | (1) |
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Each Macromolecule Contains a Specific Sequence of Subunits |
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59 | (3) |
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Noncovalent Bonds Specify the Precise Shape of a Macromolecule |
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62 | (1) |
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Noncovalent Bonds Allow a Macromolecule to Bind Other Selected Molecules |
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63 | (1) |
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64 | (16) |
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80 | (3) |
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Chapter 3 Energy, Catalysis, and Biosynthesis |
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83 | (38) |
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The Use of Energy by Cells |
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84 | (1) |
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Biological Order Is Made Possible by the Release of Heat Energy from Cells |
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84 | (2) |
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Cells Can Convert Energy from One Form to Another |
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86 | (1) |
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Photosynthetic Organisms Use Sunlight to Synthesize Organic Molecules |
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87 | (1) |
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Cells Obtain Energy by the Oxidation of Organic Molecules |
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88 | (1) |
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Oxidation and Reduction Involve Electron Transfers |
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89 | (1) |
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Free Energy and Catalysis |
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90 | (1) |
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Chemical Reactions Proceed in the Direction that Causes a Loss of Free Energy |
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91 | (1) |
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Enzymes Reduce the Energy Needed to Initiate Spontaneous Reactions |
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91 | (2) |
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The Free-Energy Change for a Reaction Determines Whether It Can Occur |
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93 | (1) |
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ΔG Changes As a Reaction Proceeds Toward Equilibrium |
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94 | (1) |
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The Standard Free-Energy Change, ΔG°, Makes it Possible to Compare the Energetics of Different Reactions |
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94 | (1) |
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The Equilibrium Constant Is Directly Proportional to ΔG° |
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95 | (3) |
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In Complex Reactions, the Equilibrium Constant Includes the Concentrations of All Reactants and Products |
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98 | (1) |
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The Equilibrium Constant Indicates the Strength of Molecular Interactions |
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98 | (1) |
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For Sequential Reactions, the Changes in Free Energy Are Additive |
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99 | (1) |
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Thermal Motion Allows Enzymes to Find Their Substrates |
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100 | (2) |
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Vmax and KM Measure Enzyme Performance |
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102 | (1) |
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Activated Carriers and Biosynthesis |
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103 | (1) |
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The Formation of an Activated Carrier Is Coupled to an Energetically Favorable Reaction |
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103 | (4) |
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ATP Is the Most Widely Used Activated Carrier |
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107 | (2) |
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Energy Stored in ATP Is Often Harnessed to Join Two Molecules Together |
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109 | (1) |
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NADH and NADPH Are Both Activated Carriers of Electrons |
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109 | (1) |
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NADPH and NADH Have Different Roles in Cells |
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110 | (1) |
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Cells Make Use of Many Other Activated Carriers |
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111 | (2) |
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The Synthesis of Biological Polymers Requires an Energy Input |
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113 | (3) |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (4) |
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Chapter 4 Protein Structure and Function |
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121 | (50) |
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The Shape and Structure of Proteins |
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123 | (1) |
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The Shape of a Protein Is Specified by Its Amino Acid Sequence |
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123 | (3) |
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Proteins Fold into a Conformation of Lowest Energy |
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126 | (1) |
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Proteins Come in a Wide Variety of Complicated Shapes |
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127 | (3) |
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The α Helix and the β Sheet Are Common Folding Patterns |
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130 | (1) |
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Helices Form Readily in Biological Structures |
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130 | (2) |
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β Sheets Form Rigid Structures at the Core of Many Proteins |
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132 | (1) |
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Proteins Have Several Levels of Organization |
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132 | (2) |
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Many Proteins Also Contain Unstructured Regions |
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134 | (1) |
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Few of the Many Possible Polypeptide Chains Will Be Useful |
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135 | (1) |
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Proteins Can Be Classified into Families |
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136 | (1) |
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Large Protein Molecules Often Contain More Than One Polypeptide Chain |
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137 | (1) |
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Proteins Can Assemble into Filaments, Sheets, or Spheres |
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138 | (1) |
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Some Types of Proteins Have Elongated Fibrous Shapes |
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139 | (1) |
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Extracellular Proteins Are Often Stabilized by Covalent Cross-Linkages |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (1) |
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All Proteins Bind to Other Molecules |
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141 | (2) |
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There Are Billions of Different Antibodies, Each with a Different Binding Site |
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143 | (1) |
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Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts |
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144 | (1) |
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Lysozyme Illustrates How an Enzyme Works |
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145 | (4) |
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Many Drugs Inhibit Enzymes |
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149 | (1) |
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Tightly Bound Small Molecules Add Extra Functions to Proteins |
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149 | (1) |
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How Proteins are Controlled |
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150 | (1) |
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The Catalytic Activities of Enzymes Are Often Regulated by Other Molecules |
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151 | (1) |
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Allosteric Enzymes Have Two or More Binding Sites That Influence One Another |
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151 | (1) |
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Phosphorylation Can Control Protein Activity by Causing a Conformational Change |
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152 | (2) |
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Covalent Modifications Also Control the Location and Interaction of Proteins |
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154 | (1) |
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GTP-Binding Proteins Are Also Regulated by the Cyclic Gain and Loss of a Phosphate Group |
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155 | (1) |
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ATP Hydrolysis Allows Motor Proteins to Produce Directed Movements in Cells |
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155 | (1) |
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Proteins Often Form Large Complexes That Function as Protein Machines |
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156 | (1) |
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157 | (1) |
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Proteins Can be Purified from Cells or Tissues |
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157 | (1) |
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Determining a Protein's Structure Begins with Determining Its Amino Acid Sequence |
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158 | (2) |
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Genetic Engineering Techniques Permit the Large-Scale Production, Design, and Analysis of Almost Any Protein |
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160 | (1) |
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The Relatedness of Proteins Aids the Prediction of Protein Structure and Function |
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161 | (7) |
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168 | (1) |
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169 | (2) |
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Chapter 5 DNA and Chromosomes |
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171 | (26) |
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172 | (1) |
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A DNA Molecule Consists of Two Complementary Chains of Nucleotides |
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173 | (5) |
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The Structure of DNA Provides a Mechanism for Heredity |
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178 | (1) |
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The Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes |
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179 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic DNA Is Packaged into Multiple Chromosomes |
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179 | (1) |
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Chromosomes Contain Long Strings of Genes |
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180 | (2) |
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Specialized DNA Sequences Are Required for DNA Replication and Chromosome Segregation |
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182 | (1) |
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Interphase Chromosomes Are Not Randomly Distributed Within the Nucleus |
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183 | (1) |
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The DNA in Chromosomes Is Always Highly Condensed |
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184 | (1) |
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Nucleosomes Are the Basic Units of Eukaryotic Chromosome Structure |
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185 | (2) |
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Chromosome Packing Occurs on Multiple Levels |
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187 | (1) |
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The Regulation of Chromosome Structure |
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188 | (1) |
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Changes in Nucleosome Structure Allow Access to DNA |
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188 | (2) |
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Interphase Chromosomes Contain Both Condensed and More Extended Forms of Chromatin |
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190 | (2) |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (4) |
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Chapter 6 DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination |
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197 | (26) |
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198 | (1) |
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Base-Pairing Enables DNA Replication |
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198 | (1) |
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DNA Synthesis Begins at Replication Origins |
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199 | (1) |
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Two Replication Forks Form at Each Replication Origin |
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199 | (4) |
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DNA Polymerase Synthesizes DNA Using a Parental Strand as Template |
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203 | (1) |
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The Replication Fork Is Asymmetrical |
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204 | (1) |
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DNA Polymerase Is Self-correcting |
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205 | (1) |
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Short Lengths of RNA Act as Primers for DNA Synthesis |
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206 | (1) |
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Proteins at a Replication Fork Cooperate to Form a Replication Machine |
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207 | (2) |
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Telomerase Replicates the Ends of Eukaryotic Chromosomes |
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209 | (2) |
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211 | (1) |
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DNA Damage Occurs Continually in Cells |
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212 | (1) |
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Cells Possess a Variety of Mechanisms for Repairing DNA |
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213 | (1) |
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A DNA Mismatch Repair System Removes Replication Errors That Escape Proofreading |
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214 | (1) |
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Double-Strand DNA Breaks Require a Different Strategy for Repair |
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215 | (1) |
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Homologous Recombination Can Flawlessly Repair DNA Double-Strand Breaks |
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216 | (2) |
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Failure to Repair DNA Damage Can Have Severe Consequences for a Cell or Organism |
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218 | (1) |
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A Record of the Fidelity of DNA Replication and Repair Is Preserved in Genome Sequences |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (2) |
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Chapter 7 From DNA to Protein: How Cells Read the Genome |
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223 | (38) |
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224 | (1) |
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Portions of DNA Sequence Are Transcribed into RNA |
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225 | (1) |
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Transcription Produces RNA That Is Complementary to One Strand of DNA |
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226 | (1) |
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Cells Produce Various Types of RNA |
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227 | (1) |
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Signals in DNA Tell RNA Polymerase Where to Start and Finish Transcription |
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228 | (2) |
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Initiation of Eukaryotic Gene Transcription Is a Complex Process |
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230 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic RNA Polymerase Requires General Transcription Factors |
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231 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic mRNAs Are Processed in the Nucleus |
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232 | (1) |
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In Eukaryotes, Protein-Coding Genes Are Interrupted by Noncoding Sequences Called Introns |
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233 | (1) |
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Introns Are Removed From Pre-mRNAs by RNA Splicing |
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234 | (2) |
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Mature Eukaryotic mRNAs Are Exported from the Nucleus |
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236 | (1) |
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mRNA Molecules Are Eventually Degraded in the Cytosol |
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237 | (1) |
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The Earliest Cells May Have Had Introns in Their Genes |
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237 | (1) |
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238 | (1) |
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An mRNA Sequence Is Decoded in Sets of Three Nucleotides |
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239 | (3) |
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tRNA Molecules Match Amino Acids to Codons in mRNA |
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242 | (1) |
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Specific Enzymes Couple tRNAs to the Correct Amino Acid |
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243 | (1) |
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The mRNA Message Is Decoded by Ribosomes |
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244 | (2) |
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The Ribosome Is a Ribozyme |
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246 | (1) |
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Specific Codons in mRNA Signal the Ribosome Where to Start and to Stop Protein Synthesis |
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247 | (2) |
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Proteins Are Made on Polyribosomes |
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249 | (1) |
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Inhibitors of Prokaryotic Protein Synthesis Are Used as Antibiotics |
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249 | (1) |
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Controlled Protein Breakdown Helps Regulate the Amount of Each Protein in a Cell |
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250 | (2) |
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There Are Many Steps Between DNA and Protein |
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252 | (1) |
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RNA and the Origins of Life |
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253 | (1) |
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Life Requires Autocatalysis |
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253 | (1) |
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RNA Can Both Store Information and Catalyze Chemical Reactions |
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254 | (1) |
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RNA Is Thought to Predate DNA in Evolution |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (2) |
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258 | (3) |
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Chapter 8 Control of Gene Expression |
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261 | (28) |
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An Overview of Gene Expression |
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262 | (1) |
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The Different Cell Types of a Multicellular Organism Contain the Same DNA |
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262 | (1) |
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Different Cell Types Produce Different Sets of Proteins |
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263 | (1) |
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A Cell Can Change the Expression of Its Genes in Response to External Signals |
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264 | (1) |
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Gene Expression Can Be Regulated at Various Steps from DNA to RNA to Protein |
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264 | (1) |
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How Transcriptional Switches Work |
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265 | (1) |
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Transcription Regulators Bind to Regulatory DNA Sequences |
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265 | (2) |
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Transcriptional Switches Allow Cells to Respond to Changes in Their Environment |
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267 | (1) |
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Repressors Turn Genes Off and Activators Turn Them On |
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268 | (1) |
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An Activator and a Repressor Control the Lac Operon |
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268 | (2) |
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Eukaryotic Transcription Regulators Control Gene Expression from a Distance |
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270 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic Transcription Regulators Help Initiate Transcription by Recruiting Chromatin-Modifying Proteins |
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271 | (1) |
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The Molecular Mechanisms That Create Specialized Cell Types |
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272 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic Genes Are Controlled by Combinations of Transcription Regulators |
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272 | (1) |
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The Expression of Different Genes Can Be Coordinated by a Single Protein |
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273 | (3) |
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Combinatorial Control Can Also Generate Different Cell Types |
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276 | (2) |
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Specialized Cell Types Can Be Experimentally Reprogrammed to Become Pluripotent Stem Cells |
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278 | (1) |
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The Formation of an Entire Organ Can Be Triggered by a Single Transcription Regulator |
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278 | (1) |
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Epigenetic Mechanisms Allow Differentiated Cells to Maintain Their Identity |
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279 | (1) |
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Post-Transcriptional Controls |
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280 | (1) |
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Each mRNA Controls Its Own Degradation and Translation |
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281 | (1) |
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Regulatory RNAs Control the Expression of Thousands of Genes |
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282 | (1) |
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MicroRNAs Direct the Destruction of Target mRNAs |
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282 | (1) |
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Small Interfering RNAs Are Produced From Double-Stranded, Foreign RNAs to Protect Cells From Infections |
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283 | (1) |
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Thousands of Long Noncoding RNAs May Also Regulate Mammalian Gene Activity |
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284 | (1) |
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284 | (2) |
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286 | (3) |
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Chapter 9 How Genes and Genomes Evolve |
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289 | (36) |
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Generating Genetic Variation |
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290 | (1) |
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In Sexually Reproducing Organisms, Only Changes to the Germ Line Are Passed On To Progeny |
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291 | (2) |
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Point Mutations Are Caused by Failures of the Normal Mechanisms for Copying and Repairing DNA |
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293 | (1) |
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Point Mutations Can Change the Regulation of a Gene |
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294 | (1) |
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DNA Duplications Give Rise to Families of Related Genes |
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294 | (2) |
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The Evolution of the Globin Gene Family Shows How Gene Duplication and Divergence Can Produce New Proteins |
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296 | (2) |
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Whole-Genome Duplications Have Shaped the Evolutionary History of Many Species |
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298 | (1) |
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Novel Genes Can Be Created by Exon Shuffling |
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298 | (1) |
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The Evolution of Genomes Has Been Profoundly Influenced by the Movement of Mobile Genetic Elements |
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299 | (1) |
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Genes Can Be Exchanged Between Organisms by Horizontal Gene Transfer |
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300 | (1) |
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Reconstructing Life's Family Tree |
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300 | (1) |
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Genetic Changes That Provide a Selective Advantage Are Likely to Be Preserved |
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301 | (1) |
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Closely Related Organisms Have Genomes That Are Similar in Organization As Well As Sequence |
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301 | (1) |
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Functionally Important Genome Regions Show Up As Islands of Conserved DNA Sequence |
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302 | (2) |
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Genome Comparisons Show That Vertebrate Genomes Gain and Lose DNA Rapidly |
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304 | (1) |
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Sequence Conservation Allows Us to Trace Even the Most Distant Evolutionary Relationships |
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305 | (2) |
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307 | (1) |
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Mobile Genetic Elements Encode the Components They Need for Movement |
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307 | (1) |
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The Human Genome Contains Two Major Families of Transposable Sequences |
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308 | (1) |
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Viruses Can Move Between Cells and Organisms |
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309 | (1) |
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Retroviruses Reverse the Normal Flow of Genetic Information |
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310 | (1) |
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Examining the Human Genome |
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311 | (2) |
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The Nucleotide Sequences of Human Genomes Show How Our Genes Are Arranged |
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313 | (2) |
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Accelerated Changes in Conserved Genome Sequences Help Reveal What Makes Us Human |
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315 | (3) |
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Genome Variation Contributes to Our Individuality---But How? |
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318 | (1) |
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Differences in Gene Regulation May Help Explain How Animals With Similar Genomes Can Be So Different |
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319 | (2) |
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321 | (1) |
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322 | (3) |
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Chapter 10 Modern Recombinant DNA Technology |
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325 | (34) |
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Manipulating and Analyzing DNA Molecules |
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326 | (1) |
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Restriction Nucleases Cut DNA Molecules at Specific Sites |
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327 | (1) |
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Gel Electrophoresis Separates DNA Fragments of Different Sizes |
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327 | (2) |
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Bands of DNA in a Gel Can Be Visualized Using Fluorescent Dyes or Radioisotopes |
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329 | (1) |
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Hybridization Provides a Sensitive Way to Detect Specific Nucleotide Sequences |
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329 | (1) |
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330 | (1) |
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DNA Cloning Begins with Genome Fragmentation and Production of Recombinant DNAs |
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331 | (1) |
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Recombinant DNA Can Be Inserted Into Plasmid Vectors |
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331 | (1) |
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Recombinant DNA Can Be Copied Inside Bacterial Cells |
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332 | (1) |
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Genes Can Be Isolated from a DNA Library |
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333 | (1) |
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cDNA Libraries Represent the mRNAs Produced by Particular Cells |
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334 | (1) |
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335 | (1) |
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PCR Uses a DNA Polymerase to Amplify Selected DNA Sequences in a Test Tube |
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336 | (1) |
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Multiple Cycles of Amplification In Vitro Generate Billions of Copies of the Desired Nucleotide Sequence |
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337 | (1) |
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PCR is Also Used for Diagnostic and Forensic Applications |
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338 | (1) |
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Exploring and Exploiting Gene Function |
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339 | (2) |
|
Whole Genomes Can Be Sequenced Rapidly |
|
|
341 | (2) |
|
Next-Generation Sequencing Techniques Make Genome Sequencing Faster and Cheaper |
|
|
343 | (3) |
|
Comparative Genome Analyses Can Identify Genes and Predict Their Function |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
Analysis of mRNAs By Microarray or RNA-Seq Provides a Snapshot of Gene Expression |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
In Situ Hybridization Can Reveal When and Where a Gene Is Expressed |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
Reporter Genes Allow Specific Proteins to be Tracked in Living Cells |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
The Study of Mutants Can Help Reveal the Function of a Gene |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
RNA Interference (RNAi) Inhibits the Activity of Specific Genes |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
A Known Gene Can Be Deleted or Replaced With an Altered Version |
|
|
350 | (2) |
|
Mutant Organisms Provide Useful Models of Human Disease |
|
|
352 | (1) |
|
Transgenic Plants Are Important for Both Cell Biology and Agriculture |
|
|
352 | (2) |
|
Even Rare Proteins Can Be Made in Large Amounts Using Cloned DNA |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
|
|
355 | (1) |
|
|
|
356 | (3) |
|
Chapter 11 Membrane Structure |
|
|
359 | (24) |
|
|
|
360 | (1) |
|
Membrane Lipids Form Bilayers in Water |
|
|
361 | (3) |
|
The Lipid Bilayer Is a Flexible Two-dimensional Fluid |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
The Fluidity of a Lipid Bilayer Depends on Its Composition |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
Membrane Assembly Begins in the ER |
|
|
366 | (1) |
|
Certain Phospholipids Are Confined to One Side of the Membrane |
|
|
367 | (2) |
|
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
Membrane Proteins Associate with the Lipid Bilayer in Different Ways |
|
|
370 | (1) |
|
A Polypeptide Chain Usually Crosses the Lipid Bilayer as an α Helix |
|
|
371 | (1) |
|
Membrane Proteins Can Be Solubilized in Detergents |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
We Know the Complete Structure of Relatively Few Membrane Proteins |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
The Plasma Membrane Is Reinforced by the Underlying Cell Cortex |
|
|
374 | (2) |
|
A Cell Can Restrict the Movement of Its Membrane Proteins |
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
The Cell Surface Is, Coated with Carbohydrate |
|
|
377 | (3) |
|
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
|
|
381 | (2) |
|
Chapter 12 Transport Across Cell Membranes |
|
|
383 | (36) |
|
Principles of Transmembrane Transport |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
Lipid Bilayers Are Impermeable to Ions and Most Uncharged Polar Molecules |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
The Ion Concentrations Inside a Cell Are Very Different from Those Outside |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
Differences in the Concentration of Inorganic Ions Across a Cell Membrane Create a Membrane Potential |
|
|
385 | (1) |
|
Cells Contain Two Classes of Membrane Transport Proteins: Transporters and Channels |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
Solutes Cross Membranes by Either Passive or Active Transport |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
Both the Concentration Gradient and Membrane Potential Influence the Passive Transport of Charged Solutes |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
Water Moves Passively Across Cell Membranes Down Its Concentration Gradient---a Process Called Osmosis |
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
Transporters and Their Functions |
|
|
389 | (1) |
|
Passive Transporters Move a Solute Along Its Electrochemical Gradient |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
Pumps Actively Transport a Solute Against Its Electrochemical Gradient |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
The Na+ Pump in Animal Cells Uses Energy Supplied by ATP to Expel Na+ and Bring in K+ |
|
|
391 | (1) |
|
The Na+ Pump Generates a Steep Concentration Gradient of Na+ Across the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
Ca2+ Pumps Keep the Cytosolic Ca2+ Concentration Low |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
Coupled Pumps Exploit Solute Gradients to Mediate Active Transport |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
The Electrochemical Na+ Gradient Drives Coupled Pumps in the Plasma Membrane of Animal Cells |
|
|
393 | (2) |
|
Electrochemical H+ Gradients Drive Coupled Pumps in Plants, Fungi, and Bacteria |
|
|
395 | (1) |
|
Ion Channels and the Membrane Potential |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
Ion Channels Are Ion-selective and Gated |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
Membrane Potential Is Governed by the Permeability of a Membrane to Specific Ions |
|
|
398 | (2) |
|
Ion Channels Randomly Snap Between Open and Closed States |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Different Types of Stimuli Influence the Opening and Closing of Ion Channels |
|
|
401 | (2) |
|
Voltage-gated Ion Channels Respond to the Membrane Potential |
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
Ion Channels and Nerve Cell Signaling |
|
|
403 | (1) |
|
Action Potentials Allow Rapid Long-Distance Communication Along Axons |
|
|
404 | (1) |
|
Action Potentials Are Mediated by Voltage-gated Cation Channels |
|
|
405 | (4) |
|
Voltage-gated Ca2+ Channels in Nerve Terminals Convert an Electrical Signal into a Chemical Signal |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
Transmitter-gated Ion Channels in the Postsynaptic Membrane Convert the Chemical Signal Back into an Electrical Signal |
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
Neurotransmitters Can Be Excitatory or Inhibitory |
|
|
411 | (2) |
|
Most Psychoactive Drugs Affect Synaptic Signaling by Binding to Neurotransmitter Receptors |
|
|
413 | (1) |
|
The Complexity of Synaptic Signaling Enables Us to Think, Act, Learn, and Remember |
|
|
413 | (1) |
|
Optogenetics Uses Light-gated Ion Channels to Transiently Activate or Inactivate Neurons in Living Animals |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
|
|
415 | (2) |
|
|
|
417 | (2) |
|
Chapter 13 How Cells Obtain Energy From Food |
|
|
419 | (28) |
|
The Breakdown and Utilization of Sugars and Fats |
|
|
420 | (1) |
|
Food Molecules Are Broken Down in Three Stages |
|
|
421 | (1) |
|
Glycolysis Extracts Energy from the Splitting of Sugar |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
Glycolysis Produces Both ATP and NADH |
|
|
423 | (2) |
|
Fermentations Can Produce ATP in the Absence of Oxygen |
|
|
425 | (1) |
|
Glycolytic Enzymes Couple Oxidation to Energy Storage in Activated Carriers |
|
|
426 | (4) |
|
Several Organic Molecules Are Converted to Acetyl CoA in the Mitochondrial Matrix |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
The Citric Acid Cycle Generates NADH by Oxidizing Acetyl Groups to CO2 |
|
|
430 | (3) |
|
Many Biosynthetic Pathways Begin with Glycolysis or the Citric Acid Cycle |
|
|
433 | (5) |
|
Electron Transport Drives the Synthesis of the Majority of the ATP in Most Cells |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
Catabolic and Anabolic Reactions Are Organized and Regulated |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
Feedback Regulation Allows Cells to Switch from Glucose Breakdown to Glucose Synthesis |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
Cells Store Food Molecules in Special Reservoirs to Prepare for Periods of Need |
|
|
441 | (4) |
|
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
Chapter 14 Energy Generation in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts |
|
|
447 | (40) |
|
Cells Obtain Most of Their Energy by a Membrane-based Mechanism |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
Chemiosmotic Coupling is an Ancient Process, Preserved in Present-Day Cells |
|
|
449 | (2) |
|
Mitochondria and Oxidative Phosphorylation |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
Mitochondria Can Change Their Shape, Location, and Number to Suit a Cell's Needs |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
A Mitochondrion Contains an Outer Membrane, an Inner Membrane, and Two Internal Compartments |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
The Citric Acid Cycle Generates the High-Energy Electrons Required for ATP Production |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
The Movement of Electrons is Coupled to the Pumping of Protons |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
Protons Are Pumped Across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane by Proteins in the Electron-Transport Chain |
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
Proton Pumping Produces a Steep Electrochemical Proton Gradient Across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
ATP Synthase Uses the Energy Stored in the Electrochemical Proton Gradient to Produce ATP |
|
|
457 | (2) |
|
Coupled Transport Across the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane Is Also Driven by the Electrochemical Proton Gradient |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
The Rapid Conversion of ADP to ATP in Mitochondria Maintains a High ATP/ADP Ratio in Cells |
|
|
459 | (1) |
|
Cell Respiration Is Amazingly Efficient |
|
|
460 | (1) |
|
Molecular Mechanisms of Electron Transport and Proton Pumping |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Protons Are Readily Moved by the Transfer of Electrons |
|
|
461 | (3) |
|
The Redox Potential Is a Measure of Electron Affinities |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
Electron Transfers Release Large Amounts of Energy |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
Metals Tightly Bound to Proteins Form Versatile Electron Carriers |
|
|
465 | (3) |
|
Cytochrome c Oxidase Catalyzes the Reduction of Molecular Oxygen |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis |
|
|
469 | (1) |
|
Chloroplasts Resemble Mitochondria but Have an Extra Compartment---the Thylakoid |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
Photosynthesis Generates---Then Consumes---ATP and NADPH |
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
Chlorophyll Molecules Absorb the Energy of Sunlight |
|
|
472 | (1) |
|
Excited Chlorophyll Molecules Funnel Energy into a Reaction Center |
|
|
472 | (1) |
|
A Pair of Photosystems Cooperate to Generate Both ATP and NADPH |
|
|
473 | (1) |
|
Oxygen Is Generated by a Water-Splitting Complex Associated with Photosystem II |
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
The Special Pair in Photosystem I Receives its Electrons from Photosystem II |
|
|
475 | (1) |
|
Carbon Fixation Uses ATP and NADPH to Convert CO2 into Sugars |
|
|
476 | (2) |
|
Sugars Generated by Carbon Fixation Can Be Stored As Starch or Consumed to Produce ATP |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
The Evolution of Energy-Generating Systems |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
Oxidative Phosphorylation Evolved in Stages |
|
|
479 | (1) |
|
Photosynthetic Bacteria Made Even Fewer Demands on Their Environment |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
The Lifestyle of Methanococcus Suggests That Chemiosmotic Coupling Is an Ancient Process |
|
|
481 | (1) |
|
|
|
482 | (1) |
|
|
|
483 | (4) |
|
Chapter 15 Intracellular Compartments and Protein Transport |
|
|
487 | (10) |
|
Membrane-Enclosed Organelles |
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
Eukaryotic Cells Contain a Basic Set of Membrane-enclosed Organelles |
|
|
488 | (3) |
|
Membrane-enclosed Organelles Evolved in Different Ways |
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
Proteins Are Transported into Organelles by Three Mechanisms |
|
|
492 | (2) |
|
Signal Sequences Direct Proteins to the Correct Compartment |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
Proteins Enter the Nucleus Through Nuclear Pores |
|
|
495 | (2) |
|
Proteins Unfold to Enter Mitochondria and Chloroplasts |
|
|
497 | (28) |
|
Proteins Enter Peroxisomes from Both the Cytosol and the Endoplasmic Reticulum |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Proteins Enter the Endoplasmic Reticulum While Being Synthesized |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Soluble Proteins Made on the ER Are Released into the ER Lumen |
|
|
499 | (2) |
|
Start and Stop Signals Determine the Arrangement of a Transmembrane Protein in the Lipid Bilayer |
|
|
501 | (2) |
|
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
Transport Vesicles Carry Soluble Proteins and Membrane Between Compartments |
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
Vesicle Budding Is Driven by the Assembly of a Protein Coat |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
Vesicle Docking Depends on Tethers and SNAREs |
|
|
505 | (2) |
|
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
Most Proteins Are Covalently Modified in the ER |
|
|
507 | (2) |
|
Exit from the ER Is Controlled to Ensure Protein Quality |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
The Size of the ER Is Controlled by the Demand for Protein |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
Proteins Are Further Modified and Sorted in the Golgi Apparatus |
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
Secretory Proteins Are Released from the Cell by Exocytosis |
|
|
511 | (4) |
|
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
Specialized Phagocytic Cells Ingest Large Particles |
|
|
515 | (1) |
|
Fluid and Macromolecules Are Taken Up by Pinocytosis |
|
|
516 | (1) |
|
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis Provides a Specific Route into Animal Cells |
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
Endocytosed Macromolecules Are Sorted in Endosomes |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
Lysosomes Are the Principal Sites of Intracellular Digestion |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
|
|
520 | (2) |
|
|
|
522 | (3) |
|
Chapter 16 Cell Signaling |
|
|
525 | (78) |
|
General Principles of Cell Signaling |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
Signals Can Act over a Long or Short Range |
|
|
526 | (2) |
|
Each Cell Responds to a Limited Set of Extracellular Signals, Depending on Its History and Its Current State |
|
|
528 | (3) |
|
A Cell's Response to a Signal Can Be Fast or Slow |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
Some Hormones Cross the Plasma Membrane and Bind to Intracellular Receptors |
|
|
531 | (2) |
|
Some Dissolved Gases Cross the Plasma Membrane and Activate Intracellular Enzymes Directly |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Cell-Surface Receptors Relay Extracellular Signals via Intracellular Signaling Pathways |
|
|
534 | (1) |
|
Some Intracellular Signaling Proteins Act as Molecular Switches |
|
|
535 | (2) |
|
Cell-Surface Receptors Fall into Three Main Classes |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
Ion-channel--coupled Receptors Convert Chemical Signals into Electrical Ones |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
G-Protein-Coupled Receptors |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
Stimulation of GPCRs Activates G-Protein Subunits |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Some Bacterial Toxins Cause Disease by Altering the Activity of G Proteins |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
Some G Proteins Directly Regulate Ion Channels |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Many G Proteins Activate Membrane-bound Enzymes that Produce Small Messenger Molecules |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
The Cyclic AMP Signaling Pathway Can Activate Enzymes and Turn On Genes |
|
|
544 | (2) |
|
The Inositol Phospholipid Pathway Triggers a Rise in Intracellular Ca2+ |
|
|
546 | (2) |
|
A Ca2+ Signal Triggers Many Biological Processes |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
GPCR-Triggered Intracellular Signaling Cascades Can Achieve Astonishing Speed, Sensitivity, and Adaptability |
|
|
549 | (2) |
|
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
Activated RTKs Recruit a Complex of Intracellular Signaling Proteins |
|
|
552 | (1) |
|
Most RTKs Activate the Monomeric GTPase Ras |
|
|
553 | (2) |
|
RTKs Activate PI 3-Kinase to Produce Lipid Docking Sites in the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
555 | (3) |
|
Some Receptors Activate a Fast Track to the Nucleus |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
Cell--Cell Communication Evolved Independently in Plants and Animals |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
Protein Kinase Networks Integrate Information to Control Complex Cell Behaviors |
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
|
|
561 | (2) |
|
|
|
563 | (2) |
|
|
|
565 | (2) |
|
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
Intermediate Filaments Are Strong and Ropelike |
|
|
567 | (2) |
|
Intermediate Filaments Strengthen Cells Against Mechanical Stress |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
The Nuclear Envelope Is Supported by a Meshwork of Intermediate Filaments |
|
|
570 | (1) |
|
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
Microtubules Are Hollow Tubes with Structurally Distinct Ends |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
The Centrosome Is the Major Microtubule-organizing Center in Animal Cells |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
Growing Microtubules Display Dynamic Instability |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Dynamic Instability is Driven by GTP Hydrolysis |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Microtubule Dynamics Can be Modified by Drugs |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Microtubules Organize the Cell Interior |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
Motor Proteins Drive Intracellular Transport |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
Microtubules and Motor Proteins Position Organelles in the Cytoplasm |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Cilia and Flagella Contain Stable Microtubules Moved by Dynein |
|
|
579 | (4) |
|
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
Actin Filaments Are Thin and Flexible |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
Actin and Tubulin Polymerize by Similar Mechanisms |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Many Proteins Bind to Actin and Modify Its Properties |
|
|
586 | (2) |
|
A Cortex Rich in Actin Filaments Underlies the Plasma Membrane of Most Eukaryotic Cells |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
Cell Crawling Depends on Cortical Actin |
|
|
588 | (3) |
|
Actin Associates with Myosin to Form Contractile Structures |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
Extracellular Signals Can Alter the Arrangement of Actin Filaments |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
|
|
592 | (1) |
|
Muscle Contraction Depends on Interacting Filaments of Actin and Myosin |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
Actin Filaments Slide Against Myosin Filaments During Muscle Contraction |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
Muscle Contraction Is Triggered by a Sudden Rise in Cytosolic Ca2+ |
|
|
595 | (3) |
|
Different Types of Muscle Cells Perform Different Functions |
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
|
|
600 | (3) |
|
Chapter 18 The Cell-Division Cycle |
|
|
603 | (42) |
|
Overview of the Cell Cycle |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Usually Includes Four Phases |
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
A Cell-Cycle Control System Triggers the Major Processes of the Cell Cycle |
|
|
606 | (1) |
|
Cell-Cycle Control is Similar in All Eukaryotes |
|
|
607 | (1) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System |
|
|
607 | (1) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System Depends on Cyclically Activated Protein Kinases called Cdks |
|
|
607 | (1) |
|
Different Cyclin--Cdk Complexes Trigger Different Steps in the Cell Cycle |
|
|
608 | (3) |
|
Cyclin Concentrations are Regulated by Transcription and by Proteolysis |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
The Activity of Cyclin--Cdk Complexes Depends on Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
Cdk Activity Can be Blocked by Cdk Inhibitor Proteins |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System Can Pause the Cycle in Various Ways |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
Cdks are Stably Inactivated in G1 |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
Mitogens Promote the Production of the Cyclins that Stimulate Cell Division |
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
DNA Damage Can Temporarily Halt Progression Through G1 |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
Cells Can Delay Division for Prolonged Periods by Entering Specialized Nondividing States |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
S-Cdk Initiates DNA Replication and Blocks Re-Replication |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
Incomplete Replication Can Arrest the Cell Cycle in G2 |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
M-Cdk Drives Entry Into M Phase and Mitosis |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
Cohesins and Condensins Help Configure Duplicated Chromosomes for Separation |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Different Cytoskeletal Assemblies Carry Out Mitosis and Cytokinesis |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
|
|
620 | (1) |
|
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
Centrosomes Duplicate To Help Form the Two Poles of the Mitotic Spindle |
|
|
621 | (3) |
|
The Mitotic Spindle Starts to Assemble in Prophase |
|
|
624 | (1) |
|
Chromosomes Attach to the Mitotic Spindle at Prometaphase |
|
|
624 | (2) |
|
Chromosomes Assist in the Assembly of the Mitotic Spindle |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
Chromosomes Line Up at the Spindle Equator at Metaphase |
|
|
626 | (1) |
|
Proteolysis Triggers Sister-Chromatid Separation at Anaphase |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
Chromosomes Segregate During Anaphase |
|
|
627 | (2) |
|
An Unattached Chromosome Will Prevent Sister-Chromatid Separation |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
The Nuclear Envelope Re-forms at Telophase |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
The Mitotic Spindle Determines the Plane of Cytoplasmic Cleavage |
|
|
630 | (1) |
|
The Contractile Ring of Animal Cells Is Made of Actin and Myosin Filaments |
|
|
631 | (1) |
|
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells Involves the Formation of a New Cell Wall |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Membrane-Enclosed Organelles Must Be Distributed to Daughter Cells When a Cell Divides |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Control of Cell Numbers and Cell Size |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
Apoptosis Helps Regulate Animal Cell Numbers |
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
Apoptosis Is Mediated by an Intracellular Proteolytic Cascade |
|
|
634 | (2) |
|
The Intrinsic Apoptotic Death Program Is Regulated by the Bcl2 Family of Intracellular Proteins |
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
Extracellular Signals Can Also Induce Apoptosis |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
Animal Cells Require Extracellular Signals to Survive, Grow, and Divide |
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
Survival Factors Suppress Apoptosis |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
Mitogens Stimulate Cell Division by Promoting Entry into S Phase |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
Growth Factors Stimulate Cells to Grow |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
Some Extracellular Signal Proteins Inhibit Cell Survival, Division, or Growth |
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
|
|
641 | (2) |
|
|
|
643 | (2) |
|
Chapter 19 Sexual Reproduction and the Power of Genetics |
|
|
645 | (38) |
|
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
Sexual Reproduction Involves Both Diploid and Haploid Cells |
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
Sexual Reproduction Generates Genetic Diversity |
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
Sexual Reproduction Gives Organisms a Competitive Advantage in a Changing Environment |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
Meiosis and Fertilization |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
Meiosis Involves One Round of DNA Replication Followed by Two Rounds of Cell Division |
|
|
649 | (2) |
|
Meiosis Requires the Pairing of Duplicated Homologous Chromosomes |
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
Crossing-Over Occurs Between the Duplicated Maternal and Paternal Chromosomes in Each Bivalent |
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
Chromosome Pairing and Crossing-Over Ensure the Proper Segregation of Homologs |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
The Second Meiotic Division Produces Haploid Daughter Cells |
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
Haploid Gametes Contain Reassorted Genetic Information |
|
|
654 | (2) |
|
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
Fertilization Reconstitutes a Complete Diploid Genome |
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
Mendel and the Laws of Inheritance |
|
|
657 | (1) |
|
Mendel Studied Traits That Are Inherited in a Discrete Fashion |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
Mendel Disproved the Alternative Theories of Inheritance |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
Mendel's Experiments Revealed the Existence of Dominant and Recessive Alleles |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
Each Gamete Carries a Single Allele for Each Character |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
Mendel's Law of Segregation Applies to All Sexually Reproducing Organisms |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
Alleles for Different Traits Segregate Independently |
|
|
662 | (2) |
|
The Behavior of Chromosomes During Meiosis Underlies Mendel's Laws of Inheritance |
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
Even Genes on the Same Chromosome Can Segregate Independently by Crossing-Over |
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
Mutations in Genes Can Cause a Loss of Function or a Gain of Function |
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
Each of Us Carries Many Potentially Harmful Recessive Mutations |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Genetics as an Experimental Tool |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
The Classical Genetic Approach Begins with Random Mutagenesis |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
Genetic Screens Identify Mutants Deficient in Specific Cell Processes |
|
|
668 | (2) |
|
Conditional Mutants Permit the Study of Lethal Mutations |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
A Complementation Test Reveals Whether Two Mutations Are in the Same Gene |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
Rapid and Cheap DNA Sequencing Has Revolutionized Human Genetic Studies |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Linked Blocks of Polymorphisms Have Been Passed Down from Our Ancestors |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Our Genome Sequences Provide Clues to our Evolutionary History |
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
Polymorphisms Can Aid the Search for Mutations Associated with Disease |
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
Genomics Is Accelerating the Discovery of Rare Mutations that Predispose Us to Serious Disease |
|
|
675 | (3) |
|
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
|
|
679 | (4) |
|
Chapter 20 Cell Communities: Tissues, Stem Cells, and Cancer |
|
|
683 | |
|
Extracellular Matrix and Connective Tissues |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
Plant Cells Have Tough External Walls |
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
Cellulose Microfibrils Give the Plant Cell Wall Its Tensile Strength |
|
|
686 | (2) |
|
Animal Connective Tissues Consist Largely of Extracellular Matrix |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
Collagen Provides Tensile Strength in Animal Connective Tissues |
|
|
688 | (2) |
|
Cells Organize the Collagen That They Secrete |
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
Integrins Couple the Matrix Outside a Cell to the Cytoskeleton Inside It |
|
|
691 | (1) |
|
Gels of Polysaccharides and Proteins Fill Spaces and Resist Compression |
|
|
692 | (2) |
|
Epithelial Sheets and Cell Junctions |
|
|
694 | (1) |
|
Epithelial Sheets Are Polarized and Rest on a Basal Lamina |
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
Tight Junctions Make an Epithelium Leak-proof and Separate Its Apical and Basal Surfaces |
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
Cytoskeleton-linked Junctions Bind Epithelial Cells Robustly to One Another and to the Basal Lamina |
|
|
697 | (3) |
|
Gap Junctions Allow Cytosolic Inorganic Ions and Small Molecules to Pass from Cell to Cell |
|
|
700 | (2) |
|
Tissue Maintenance and Renewal |
|
|
702 | (1) |
|
Tissues Are Organized Mixtures of Many Cell Types |
|
|
703 | (2) |
|
Different Tissues Are Renewed at Different Rates |
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
Stem Cells Generate a Continuous Supply of Terminally Differentiated Cells |
|
|
705 | (2) |
|
Specific Signals Maintain Stem-Cell Populations |
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
Stem Cells Can Be Used to Repair Lost or Damaged Tissues |
|
|
708 | (2) |
|
Therapeutic Cloning and Reproductive Cloning Are Very Different Enterprises |
|
|
710 | (1) |
|
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Provide a Convenient Source of Human ES-like Cells |
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Cancer Cells Proliferate, Invade, and Metastasize |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Epidemiological Studies Identify Preventable Causes of Cancer |
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
Cancers Develop by an Accumulation of Mutations |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
Cancer Cells Evolve, Giving Them an Increasingly Competitive Advantage |
|
|
715 | (2) |
|
Two Main Classes of Genes Are Critical for Cancer: Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes |
|
|
717 | (2) |
|
Cancer-causing Mutations Cluster in a Few Fundamental Pathways |
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
Colorectal Cancer Illustrates How Loss of a Tumor Suppressor Gene Can Lead to Cancer |
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
An Understanding of Cancer Cell Biology Opens the Way to New Treatments |
|
|
720 | (4) |
|
|
|
724 | (2) |
|
|
|
726 | |
