| Table of Cases |
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xxvii | |
| Table of Statutes |
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xlvii | |
| Table of Statutory Instruments |
|
lxi | |
| Table of International Instruments |
|
lxiii | |
| Abbreviations |
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lxv | |
| 1 Introduction To Family Law |
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1 | (27) |
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1.1 Families and family law in England and Wales today |
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1 | (2) |
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1 | (1) |
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1.1.2 What is family law? |
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2 | (1) |
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1.2 Themes and issues in contemporary family law |
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3 | (24) |
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1.2.1 The importance of rights |
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3 | (7) |
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1.2.2 Rules versus discretion |
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10 | (2) |
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1.2.3 Women's and men's perspectives on family law |
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12 | (3) |
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15 | (2) |
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17 | (2) |
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19 | (2) |
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1.2.7 State intervention versus private ordering |
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21 | (6) |
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27 | (1) |
| 2 Family Relationships Between Adults |
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28 | (93) |
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28 | (2) |
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2.2 Family relationships in England and Wales |
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30 | (3) |
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2.2.1 Formalized relationships: marriage and civil partnership |
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30 | (2) |
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2.2.2 Non-formalized relationships: cohabitation |
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32 | (1) |
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2.2.3 Other relationships within and between households |
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33 | (1) |
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2.3 Gender identity, sexual orientation, and gender roles |
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33 | (20) |
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33 | (3) |
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2.3.2 Same-sex relationships: the road to same-sex marriage |
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36 | (9) |
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2.3.3 Ideological implications of relationship formalization? |
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45 | (8) |
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2.4 Status-based relationships: marriage and civil partnership |
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53 | (7) |
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2.4.1 The nature of marriage and civil partnership |
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54 | (2) |
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2.4.2 The significance of status |
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56 | (2) |
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2.4.3 A right to marry, or not to marry? |
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58 | (2) |
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2.5 Creating a valid marriage or civil partnership |
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60 | (6) |
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2.5.1 The law of nullity: void, voidable, and non-marriages |
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61 | (1) |
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2.5.2 The practical importance of the law of nullity |
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62 | (1) |
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2.5.3 Formal requirements for creating marriage and civil partnership |
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62 | (4) |
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2.6 Grounds on which a marriage or civil partnership is void |
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66 | (15) |
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2.6.1 Void grounds: incapacity to marry or form a civil partnership |
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66 | (8) |
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2.6.2 Void grounds, non-marriage, and presumptions: disregard of formal requirements |
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74 | (7) |
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2.7 Grounds on which a marriage or civil partnership is voidable |
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81 | (22) |
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2.7.1 Lack of valid consent |
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83 | (10) |
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2.7.2 Mental disorder rendering person 'unfit' for marriage or civil partnership |
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93 | (1) |
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2.7.3 The respondent was pregnant by another at the time of the ceremony |
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94 | (1) |
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2.7.4 Grounds relating to gender recognition |
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95 | (1) |
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2.7.5 A ground unique to marriage: venereal disease |
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95 | (1) |
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2.7.6 Grounds unique to mixed-sex marriage: failure to consummate |
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96 | (7) |
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2.8 Non-formalized relationships: cohabitants and other 'family' |
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103 | (17) |
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2.8.1 Identifying 'family' |
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104 | (5) |
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109 | (6) |
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2.8.3 The platonic, non-conjugal family |
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115 | (5) |
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120 | (1) |
| 3 Ending Relationships: Divorce And Separation |
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121 | (78) |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (3) |
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3.2.1 Divorces in England and Wales |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (2) |
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3.3 The nature, function, and limits of divorce law |
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126 | (4) |
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3.3.1 Regulation or regularization? |
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126 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Fault or 'no-fault'? |
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127 | (1) |
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3.3.3 'Easier' or 'harder' divorce and supporting the institution of marriage |
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127 | (2) |
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3.3.4 Can divorce law affect marital and divorcing behaviour? |
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129 | (1) |
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3.3.5 A legal or non-legal approach? |
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130 | (1) |
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3.4 A brief history of divorce law to 1969 |
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130 | (2) |
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3.5 The present law of divorce and judicial separation |
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132 | (41) |
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3.5.1 The ground for divorce: irretrievable breakdown of marriage |
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132 | (2) |
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3.5.2 The facts: adultery by the respondent |
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134 | (3) |
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3.5.3 The facts: behaviour of the respondent |
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137 | (9) |
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3.5.4 The facts: desertion for two years by the respondent |
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146 | (3) |
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3.5.5 The separation facts |
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149 | (6) |
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3.5.6 Bars and other restrictions on divorce |
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155 | (5) |
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3.5.7 The procedure for divorce |
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160 | (10) |
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3.5.8 The use of the facts in practice |
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170 | (3) |
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3.5.9 Judicial separation |
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173 | (1) |
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3.6 Evaluation of the current law |
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173 | (9) |
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3.7 Options for reform of divorce law and the process of divorce |
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182 | (11) |
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3.7.1 Reaffirming the centrality of fault? |
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182 | (5) |
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3.7.2 Divorce by mutual consent? |
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187 | (1) |
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3.7.3 Divorce on unilateral demand? |
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188 | (1) |
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3.7.4 Divorce as a process over time? |
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189 | (4) |
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3.8 Where next for English divorce law? |
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193 | (4) |
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3.8.1 The fate of the FLA 1996 scheme |
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193 | (2) |
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3.8.2 Reform proposals in 2018-19 |
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195 | (2) |
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197 | (2) |
| 4 Domestic Abuse |
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199 | (91) |
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199 | (2) |
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4.2 Background issues: domestic abuse and key policy questions |
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201 | (16) |
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4.2.1 Defining 'domestic abuse' |
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201 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Evidence about domestic abuse |
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202 | (6) |
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4.2.3 Feminist critiques of domestic abuse law, policy, and practice |
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208 | (4) |
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4.2.4 The human rights dimension |
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212 | (5) |
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4.3 The criminal law and domestic abuse |
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217 | (4) |
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218 | (1) |
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4.3.2 The criminal justice system |
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218 | (3) |
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4.4 The civil law and domestic abuse: introduction |
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221 | (1) |
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4.5 The Family Law Act 1996, Part 4 |
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222 | (42) |
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4.5.1 The range of relationships covered: 'associated persons' |
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222 | (6) |
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4.5.2 Non-molestation orders |
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228 | (6) |
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234 | (23) |
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4.5.4 A human rights audit of the occupation order scheme |
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257 | (3) |
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4.5.5 Applications, orders, and undertakings under the FLA 1996, Part 4 |
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260 | (4) |
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4.6 Enforcement of orders under the FLA 1996, Part 4 |
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264 | (11) |
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264 | (3) |
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4.6.2 Non-molestation orders |
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267 | (6) |
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4.6.3 Sanctions for breach in the family court |
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273 | (2) |
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4.7 Third party action to protect victims |
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275 | (6) |
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4.7.1 The CSA 2010: domestic violence protection notices and orders |
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275 | (2) |
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4.7.2 Pros and cons of third party action |
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277 | (4) |
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4.8 The future: a new breed of order-the 'DAPO'? |
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281 | (2) |
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4.9 Forced marriage protection orders under FLA 1996, Part 4A |
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283 | (5) |
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4.9.1 Which marriages are affected? |
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284 | (1) |
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4.9.2 Forced marriage protection orders |
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285 | (3) |
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288 | (1) |
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288 | (2) |
| 5 Financial Provision For Children |
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290 | (74) |
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290 | (3) |
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5.2 A brief history of financial provision for children |
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293 | (7) |
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5.2.1 Public and private law obligations to maintain children pre-CSA |
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293 | (2) |
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5.2.2 The birth, development, and demise of the Child Support Agency |
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295 | (2) |
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5.2.3 The new scheme and the CMS |
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297 | (3) |
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5.3 Overview of the current law |
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300 | (1) |
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5.3.1 The parties' relationships |
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300 | (1) |
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301 | (1) |
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5.4 Child support: the current law |
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301 | (18) |
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5.4.1 The relevant parties |
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301 | (2) |
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303 | (1) |
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303 | (2) |
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5.4.4 The maintenance calculation |
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305 | (4) |
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309 | (4) |
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5.4.6 Termination of the calculation |
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313 | (1) |
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5.4.7 Enforcement of child maintenance |
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313 | (6) |
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5.4.8 Challenging CMS decisions |
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319 | (1) |
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5.5 Court-based provision: the current law |
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319 | (16) |
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5.5.1 Lump sum and property-related orders |
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319 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Periodical payments |
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320 | (3) |
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5.5.3 The statutory schemes |
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323 | (4) |
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5.5.4 The grounds for orders and the courts' discretion |
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327 | (1) |
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5.5.5 Principles from the case law |
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328 | (7) |
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5.5.6 Enforcement of court orders |
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335 | (1) |
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5.6 'Family-based arrangements' and other private ordering |
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335 | (4) |
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5.6.1 Private ordering of maintenance |
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336 | (2) |
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5.6.2 Private ordering of other financial issues for children |
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338 | (1) |
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5.7 Policy questions relating to financial provision for children |
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339 | (23) |
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5.7.1 Children's rights or parents' responsibilities? |
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339 | (4) |
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343 | (7) |
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5.7.3 Legal and social parenthood |
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350 | (7) |
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5.7.4 The policy choices behind the formula |
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357 | (3) |
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5.7.5 Rules or discretion? |
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360 | (2) |
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362 | (2) |
| 6 Financial Remedies On Divorce |
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364 | (97) |
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365 | (1) |
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6.2 The social context: the family economy |
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365 | (3) |
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6.3 A brief history of financial remedies on divorce |
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368 | (3) |
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6.4 The current law: the toolbox of orders and resources available |
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371 | (6) |
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6.4.1 The resources available to the court |
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372 | (1) |
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6.4.2 Financial provision orders |
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372 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Property adjustment orders and orders for sale |
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373 | (2) |
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375 | (1) |
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6.4.5 When may orders be made? |
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376 | (1) |
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377 | (1) |
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6.5 The current law: the principles governing the grant of remedies |
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377 | (46) |
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6.5.1 Introduction: the statutory discretion and the case law principles |
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377 | (4) |
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6.5.2 First consideration: the welfare of minor children |
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381 | (1) |
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6.5.3 Meeting the parties' material needs |
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382 | (10) |
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6.5.4 Compensation: relationship-generated economic disadvantage |
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392 | (5) |
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6.5.5 Entitlement: equal sharing |
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397 | (19) |
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6.5.6 The parties' conduct |
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416 | (7) |
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6.6 Achieving finality on divorce |
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423 | (8) |
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6.6.1 Ending ongoing financial ties between the parties |
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423 | (4) |
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6.6.2 The clean break in practice |
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427 | (1) |
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6.6.3 Applications to vary, set aside, and for leave to appeal final orders |
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428 | (3) |
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6.7 Private ordering: marital agreements |
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431 | (23) |
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432 | (4) |
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6.7.2 Separation and maintenance agreements |
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436 | (4) |
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6.7.3 Post-nuptial agreements |
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440 | (1) |
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6.7.4 Pre-nuptial agreements |
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441 | (9) |
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6.7.5 Criticism of the current law |
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450 | (4) |
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454 | (5) |
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6.8.1 Reform of the substantive law |
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454 | (3) |
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6.8.2 Reform of the law relating to agreements |
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457 | (2) |
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459 | (2) |
| 7 Property And Finances When Non-Formalized Relationships End |
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461 | (76) |
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462 | (3) |
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7.2 Ascertaining ownership of the shared home and other land |
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465 | (42) |
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7.2.1 Transfers and express trusts: formal requirements |
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466 | (3) |
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7.2.2 Implied trusts of land and proprietary estoppel: introduction |
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469 | (1) |
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7.2.3 Implied trusts of land: the presumptions of resulting trust and advancement |
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469 | (2) |
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7.2.4 Implied trusts of land: 'common intention' constructive trusts |
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471 | (21) |
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7.2.5 Proprietary estoppel |
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492 | (2) |
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7.2.6 Criticisms of the current law relating to ownership of land |
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494 | (13) |
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7.3 Occupation and sale of the former family home |
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507 | (7) |
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7.3.1 Rights to occupy the family home |
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508 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Decision-making about sale and other transactions relating to the family home |
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509 | (1) |
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7.3.3 Resolving disputes about the future of the family home |
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509 | (4) |
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7.3.4 The case of rented homes |
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513 | (1) |
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7.4 Ownership and use of other property |
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514 | (6) |
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7.4.1 Express trusts of other property |
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516 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Income and bank accounts |
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517 | (2) |
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7.4.3 Use-rights over the contents of the family home |
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519 | (1) |
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7.5 Private ordering for relationship breakdown |
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520 | (3) |
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523 | (13) |
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7.6.1 Modifying trusts law for the 'shared home'? |
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524 | (1) |
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7.6.2 A functional, remedial approach instead? |
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525 | (2) |
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7.6.3 The Law Commission's cohabitation project |
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527 | (9) |
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536 | (1) |
| 8 Fundamental Principles In The Law Relating To Children |
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537 | (74) |
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538 | (1) |
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8.2 The welfare principle |
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539 | (16) |
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8.2.1 The paramountcy of the child's welfare |
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539 | (7) |
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8.2.2 Criticisms of the welfare principle |
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546 | (9) |
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8.3 Alternatives to the welfare principle |
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555 | (4) |
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8.3.1 Re-conceptualizing the welfare principle |
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555 | (4) |
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8.4 The ECHR and child-related disputes |
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559 | (9) |
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8.4.1 Establishing a 'right' under Article 8(1) |
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559 | (1) |
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8.4.2 Establishing a breach of Article 8(1) |
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560 | (1) |
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8.4.3 Justifying a breach under Article 8(2) |
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561 | (1) |
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8.4.4 The relationship between the welfare principle and Article 8 |
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561 | (7) |
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568 | (26) |
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8.5.1 Are children's rights important? |
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569 | (2) |
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8.5.2 The theoretical foundations of children's rights |
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571 | (5) |
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8.5.3 The development of children's rights in English law |
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576 | (2) |
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8.5.4 Children's rights and the ECHR |
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578 | (1) |
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8.5.5 The UN Convention on the rights of the child (UNCRC) |
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579 | (2) |
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8.5.6 Children's rights in the domestic courts |
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581 | (13) |
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8.6 The court, the state, and private family life |
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594 | (15) |
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8.6.1 The Children Act's 'no order' principle |
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595 | (5) |
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8.6.2 The state and parental decision-making |
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600 | (9) |
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8.7 The inherent jurisdiction of the High Court |
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609 | (1) |
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610 | (1) |
| 9 Becoming A Legal Parent And The Consequences Of Legal Parenthood |
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611 | (71) |
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612 | (1) |
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9.2 Concepts of parenthood and possible approaches to determining legal parenthood |
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613 | (6) |
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9.2.1 What is a 'parent'? |
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613 | (2) |
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9.2.2 The importance of legal parenthood |
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615 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Competing approaches to determining a child's legal parents |
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616 | (3) |
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9.3 Determining parenthood in the context of natural reproduction |
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619 | (19) |
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9.3.1 Establishing maternity |
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619 | (1) |
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9.3.2 Establishing paternity |
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620 | (18) |
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9.4 Determining parenthood in the context of assisted reproduction |
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638 | (28) |
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9.4.1 The brave new world of assisted reproduction |
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638 | (1) |
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9.4.2 Access to treatment: is parenthood a right or a privilege? |
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639 | (10) |
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9.4.3 Determining parenthood under the HFEA 2008 |
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649 | (10) |
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9.4.4 The child's right to know his or her genetic parentage |
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659 | (7) |
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666 | (14) |
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9.5.1 Early attitudes to surrogacy |
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666 | (2) |
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9.5.2 The statutory framework for surrogacy |
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668 | (11) |
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9.5.3 Reform of surrogacy law |
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679 | (1) |
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680 | (1) |
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681 | (1) |
| 10 Parental Responsibility |
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682 | (48) |
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683 | (1) |
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10.2 What is parental responsibility? |
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684 | (5) |
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10.2.1 From rights to responsibility |
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684 | (4) |
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10.2.2 Defining parental responsibility |
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688 | (1) |
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10.3 How is parental responsibility obtained? |
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|
689 | (16) |
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690 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Fathers and second female parents under ss 42 and 43 of the HFEA 2008 |
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|
690 | (8) |
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10.3.3 'Alternative families' |
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|
698 | (2) |
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700 | (2) |
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10.3.5 Holders of a child arrangements order |
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702 | (2) |
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704 | (1) |
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704 | (1) |
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704 | (1) |
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705 | (1) |
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10.4 Who should have parental responsibility? |
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|
705 | (10) |
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10.4.1 The arguments for further reform |
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|
706 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Arguments against conferring equal status on unmarried fathers |
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|
707 | (5) |
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10.4.3 Reviewing the current position |
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712 | (3) |
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10.5 Exercising parental responsibility |
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|
715 | (8) |
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10.5.1 A duty to consult or a right of unilateral action? |
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|
715 | (7) |
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10.5.2 Limitations on the exercise of parental responsibility |
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|
722 | (1) |
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10.6 Terminating parental responsibility |
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|
723 | (4) |
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10.6.1 Mothers, married fathers, and second female parents under HFEA 2008, s 42 |
|
|
723 | (1) |
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10.6.2 Unmarried fathers, second female parents under HFEA 2008, s 43, and step-parents |
|
|
724 | (3) |
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10.6.3 Guardians, special guardians, and others |
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|
727 | (1) |
|
10.7 Caring for children without parental responsibility |
|
|
727 | (1) |
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|
728 | (2) |
| 11 Private Disputes Over Children |
|
730 | (95) |
|
|
|
731 | (1) |
|
11.2 Private law orders under the Children Act 1989 |
|
|
732 | (1) |
|
11.3 Procedural matters germane to all s 8 orders |
|
|
733 | (12) |
|
11.3.1 When may a s 8 order be made? |
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|
733 | (1) |
|
11.3.2 Who may apply for a s 8 order? |
|
|
733 | (5) |
|
11.3.3 The participation of children in private law disputes |
|
|
738 | (7) |
|
11.4 General principles applicable to all s 8 orders |
|
|
745 | (1) |
|
11.5 Child arrangements orders: introduction |
|
|
746 | (1) |
|
11.6 Child arrangements orders: 'lives with' orders |
|
|
747 | (31) |
|
11.6.1 The historic approaches to 'lives with' orders |
|
|
748 | (4) |
|
11.6.2 The current approach to 'lives with' orders |
|
|
752 | (2) |
|
11.6.3 Shared living arrangements |
|
|
754 | (11) |
|
11.6.4 Particular issues applicable to 'lives with' orders |
|
|
765 | (4) |
|
11.6.5 'Natural parents' versus others |
|
|
769 | (7) |
|
11.6.6 The effects of a 'lives with' order |
|
|
776 | (2) |
|
11.7 Child arrangements orders: 'spending time' and 'otherwise having contact' orders |
|
|
778 | (33) |
|
11.7.1 A presumption in favour of orders to spend time or have contact |
|
|
779 | (10) |
|
11.7.2 Displacing the presumption |
|
|
789 | (15) |
|
11.7.3 Enforcing orders to spend time or have contact |
|
|
804 | (5) |
|
11.7.4 Taking contact out of the courts |
|
|
809 | (2) |
|
11.8 Specific issue and prohibited steps orders |
|
|
811 | (12) |
|
11.8.1 General principles |
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
11.8.2 Relocation disputes |
|
|
812 | (9) |
|
11.8.3 Changing a child's name |
|
|
821 | (2) |
|
|
|
823 | (2) |
| 12 Child Protection |
|
825 | (91) |
|
|
|
825 | (3) |
|
12.2 Principles of state intervention into family life |
|
|
828 | (5) |
|
12.2.1 Competing approaches and the Children Act 1989 |
|
|
828 | (2) |
|
12.2.2 The human rights dimension |
|
|
830 | (2) |
|
12.2.3 The problem of resources |
|
|
832 | (1) |
|
12.3 State support for children and families in England under Part III |
|
|
833 | (15) |
|
12.3.1 The general duty to children in need: s 17 |
|
|
835 | (2) |
|
12.3.2 Providing accommodation for a child in England |
|
|
837 | (7) |
|
12.3.3 Local authority duties with respect to looked after children |
|
|
844 | (4) |
|
12.3.4 Part III: a success? |
|
|
848 | (1) |
|
12.4 The child protection system: investigating allegations of child abuse |
|
|
848 | (4) |
|
12.4.1 Section 47 investigation |
|
|
848 | (3) |
|
12.4.2 Section 37 investigation |
|
|
851 | (1) |
|
12.5 Care and supervision proceedings under Part IV |
|
|
852 | (50) |
|
12.5.1 Who may apply for a care or supervision order? |
|
|
852 | (1) |
|
12.5.2 When may a care or supervision order be made? |
|
|
853 | (2) |
|
12.5.3 The threshold criteria |
|
|
855 | (22) |
|
|
|
877 | (7) |
|
|
|
884 | (8) |
|
12.5.6 Effect of a care order |
|
|
892 | (2) |
|
12.5.7 Contact with a child in care |
|
|
894 | (4) |
|
12.5.8 Effect of a supervision order |
|
|
898 | (3) |
|
|
|
901 | (1) |
|
12.6 Emergency protection under Part V |
|
|
902 | (7) |
|
12.6.1 Police protection powers |
|
|
902 | (3) |
|
12.6.2 Emergency protection orders |
|
|
905 | (4) |
|
12.7 Interim care and supervision orders |
|
|
909 | (5) |
|
|
|
914 | (2) |
| 13 Adoption |
|
916 | (73) |
|
|
|
917 | (1) |
|
|
|
918 | (3) |
|
13.3 The changing face of adoption |
|
|
921 | (6) |
|
13.3.1 From childless couples and trouble-free babies |
|
|
921 | (2) |
|
13.3.2 Looked after children: does adoption offer the best solution? |
|
|
923 | (2) |
|
13.3.3 Adopting children out of care: new challenges |
|
|
925 | (2) |
|
13.4 ACA 2002: the core principles |
|
|
927 | (10) |
|
13.4.1 The welfare principle |
|
|
927 | (2) |
|
|
|
929 | (4) |
|
13.4.3 Rights, welfare, reform, and the fundamental principles of adoption |
|
|
933 | (4) |
|
13.5 The adoption process |
|
|
937 | (20) |
|
13.5.1 Placing the child for adoption |
|
|
937 | (11) |
|
13.5.2 The adoption application |
|
|
948 | (1) |
|
|
|
949 | (8) |
|
13.6 In the best interests of the child? Controversial issues |
|
|
957 | (14) |
|
13.6.1 Birth family v the 'perfect' adoptive couple |
|
|
957 | (3) |
|
13.6.2 Trans-racial adoption |
|
|
960 | (6) |
|
13.6.3 Step-parent adoption |
|
|
966 | (3) |
|
13.6.4 Adoption by a sole natural parent |
|
|
969 | (2) |
|
|
|
971 | (12) |
|
13.7.1 The right to information |
|
|
972 | (1) |
|
13.7.2 The child's right to know? |
|
|
973 | (1) |
|
13.7.3 Post-adoption contact |
|
|
974 | (9) |
|
13.8 Alternatives to adoption: special guardianship |
|
|
983 | (4) |
|
|
|
987 | (2) |
| Bibliography |
|
989 | (54) |
| Index |
|
1043 | |
