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Food Packaging: Principles and Practice, Third Edition 3rd edition [Kõva köide]

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  • Formaat: Hardback, 736 pages, kõrgus x laius: 254x178 mm, kaal: 3200 g, 100 Tables, black and white; 128 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 26-Nov-2012
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-10: 1439862419
  • ISBN-13: 9781439862414
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Food Packaging: Principles and Practice, Third Edition 3rd editionSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: Hardback, 736 pages, kõrgus x laius: 254x178 mm, kaal: 3200 g, 100 Tables, black and white; 128 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 26-Nov-2012
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-10: 1439862419
  • ISBN-13: 9781439862414
Teised raamatud teemal:
Teised raamatud sellest sooduspakkumisest: Taylor & Francis teadusraamatud International Student Editions hindadega
Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9781439862414.html
Märksõnad:
Food Packaging: Principles and Practice, Third Edition presents a comprehensive and accessible discussion of food packaging principles and their applications. Integrating concepts from chemistry, microbiology and engineering, it continues in the tradition of its bestselling predecessors and has been completely revised to include new, updated, and expanded content and provide a detailed overview of contemporary food packaging technologies.FeaturesCovers the packaging requirements of all major food groupsIncludes new chapters on food packaging closures and sealing systems, as well as optical, mechanical, and barrier properties of thermoplastic polymersProvides the latest information on new and active packaging technologiesOffers guidance on the design andanalysis of shelf life experiments and the shelf life estimation of foodsDiscusses the latest details on food contact materials including those of public interest such as BPA and phthalates in foodsDevotes extensive space to the discussion of edible, biobased and biodegradable food packaging materials An in-depth exploration of the field, Food Packaging: Principles and Practice includes all-new worked examples and reflects the latest research and future hot topics. Comprehensively researched with more than 1000 references and generously illustrated, this book will serve students and industry professionals, regardless of their level or background, as an outstanding learning and reference work for their professional preparation and practice-- Food Packaging: Principles and Practice, Third Edition presents a comprehensive and accessible discussion of food packaging principles and their applications. Integrating concepts from chemistry, microbiology, and engineering, it continues in the tradition of its bestselling predecessors and has been completely revised to include new, updated, and expanded content and provide a detailed overview of contemporary food packaging technologies.FeaturesCovers the packaging requirements of all major food groupsIncludes new chapters on food packaging closures and sealing systems, as well as optical, mechanical, and barrier properties of thermoplastic polymersProvides the latest information on new and active packaging technologiesOffers guidance on the design and analysis of shelf life experiments and the shelf life estimation of foodsDiscusses the latest details on food contact materials including those of public interest such as BPA and phthalates in foodsDevotes extensive space to the discussion of edible, biobased and biodegradable food packaging materials An in-depth exploration of the field, Food Packaging: Principles and Practice includes all-new worked examples and reflects the latest research and future hot topics. Comprehensively researched with more than 1000 references and generously illustrated, this book will serve students and industry professionals, regardless of their level or background, as an outstanding learning and reference work for their professional preparation and practice.

Arvustused

Praise for Previous Editions

"the only reference I have come across that covers this subject so thoroughly and clearlyan excellent job of covering all of the pertinent issuesthe best in this category because it is well-organized, covers the breadth of the field, contains solid basic principles and attempts to keep up with ever-changing developments while supporting all the information with scientifically sound references." Kay Cooksey, Clemson University

Preface to the Third Edition xxiii
Preface to the Second Edition xxv
Preface to the First Edition xxvii
Author xxix
Chapter 1 Introduction to Food Packaging
1(10)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 Definitions
1(1)
1.3 Functions of Packaging
2(2)
1.3.1 Containment
2(1)
1.3.2 Protection
3(1)
1.3.3 Convenience
3(1)
1.3.4 Communication
4(1)
1.4 Package Environments
4(1)
1.4.1 Physical Environment
4(1)
1.4.2 Ambient Environment
5(1)
1.4.3 Human Environment
5(1)
1.5 Functions/Environment Grid
5(1)
1.6 Packaging Innovation
6(2)
1.7 Finding Information
8(3)
References
8(3)
Chapter 2 Structure and Related Properties of Plastic Polymers
11(38)
2.1 Introduction
11(1)
2.2 History
11(1)
2.3 Factors Influencing Polymer Structures and Related Properties
12(37)
2.3.1 Molecular Structure
13(1)
2.3.1.1 Classification of Polymers
13(1)
2.3.1.2 Polymerization Processes
14(1)
2.3.2 Molecular Weight
15(1)
2.3.3 Density
16(1)
2.3.4 Crystallinity
16(1)
2.3.5 Physical Transitions in Polymers
17(3)
2.3.6 Chemical Structure
20(1)
2.3.6.1 Polyolefins
20(8)
2.3.6.2 Copolymers of Ethylene
28(3)
2.3.6.3 Substituted Olefins
31(4)
2.3.6.4 Polyesters
35(4)
2.3.6.5 Polycarbonates
39(1)
2.3.6.6 Polyamides
39(4)
2.3.6.7 Acrylonitriles
43(1)
2.3.7 Additives in Plastics
44(1)
2.3.7.1 Processing Additives
44(1)
2.3.7.2 Plasticizers
44(1)
2.3.7.3 Antiaging Additives
44(1)
2.3.7.4 Surface Property Modifiers
45(1)
2.3.7.5 Optical Property Modifiers
45(1)
2.3.7.6 Foaming Agents
45(1)
References
46(3)
Chapter 3 Edible, Biobased and Biodegradable Food Packaging Materials
49(42)
3.1 Introduction
49(1)
3.2 Edible Packaging Materials
50(8)
3.2.1 Polysaccharides
51(1)
3.2.1.1 Starch
51(1)
3.2.1.2 Cellulose
52(1)
3.2.1.3 Hemicellulose
52(1)
3.2.1.4 Chitosan
52(1)
3.2.1.5 Gums
53(1)
3.2.2 Lipids
53(1)
3.2.3 Proteins
54(1)
3.2.4 Composite Materials
55(1)
3.2.5 Film Additives
55(1)
3.2.5.1 Plasticizers
55(1)
3.2.5.2 Emulsifiers
55(1)
3.2.5.3 Antimicrobials
56(1)
3.2.5.4 Antioxidants
57(1)
3.2.6 Bionanocomposites
57(1)
3.2.7 Commercialization
57(1)
3.3 Biobased and Biodegradable Packaging Materials
58(24)
3.3.1 Classification
58(1)
3.3.2 Degradability Definitions
59(2)
3.3.3 Assessing Biodegradability of Biobased Polymers
61(2)
3.3.4 Oxo-Biodegradable (OBD) Polymers
63(1)
3.3.5 Category 1
64(1)
3.3.5.1 Starch
64(1)
3.3.5.2 Cellulose
65(2)
3.3.5.3 Hemicellulose
67(1)
3.3.5.4 Chitosan
67(1)
3.3.5.5 Others
67(1)
3.3.6 Category 2
68(1)
3.3.6.1 Poly(lactic acid)
68(1)
3.3.6.2 Biopolyethylene
69(1)
3.3.6.3 Biopoly(ethylene terephthalate)
69(1)
3.3.7 Category 3
70(1)
3.3.7.1 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates)
70(1)
3.3.7.2 Bacterial Cellulose
71(1)
3.3.8 Category 4
72(1)
3.3.8.1 Poly(caprolactone)
72(1)
3.3.8.2 Poly(glycolic acid)
73(1)
3.3.8.3 Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)
73(1)
3.3.8.4 Poly(butylene succinate) and Copolymers
73(1)
3.3.8.5 Poly(propylene carbonate)
74(1)
3.3.9 Properties of Biobased Packaging Materials
74(1)
3.3.9.1 Barrier Properties
74(2)
3.3.9.2 Mechanical Properties
76(3)
3.3.10 Current Limitations
79(1)
3.3.11 Methods to Improve Functionality
79(1)
3.3.12 Bionanocomposites
79(2)
3.3.13 Food Packaging Applications
81(1)
3.4 Environmental Aspects
82(3)
3.5 Future Trends
85(6)
References
86(5)
Chapter 4 Optical, Mechanical and Barrier Properties of Thermoplastic Polymers
91(40)
4.1 Introduction
91(1)
4.2 Optical Properties
91(1)
4.3 Tensile Properties
92(2)
4.4 Bursting Strength
94(1)
4.5 Impact Strength
94(1)
4.6 Tear Strength
95(1)
4.7 Stiffness
96(1)
4.8 Crease or Flex Resistance
96(1)
4.9 Coefficients of Friction
97(1)
4.10 Blocking
97(1)
4.11 Orientation and Shrinkage
97(1)
4.12 Barrier Properties
98(33)
4.12.1 Introduction
98(1)
4.12.2 Theory
98(3)
4.12.3 Steady-State Diffusion
101(1)
4.12.4 Unsteady-State Permeation
102(1)
4.12.5 Permeation through Pores
103(1)
4.12.6 Permeability Coefficient Units
104(5)
4.12.7 Polymer/Permeant Relationships
109(2)
4.12.8 Variables of the Polymer
111(2)
4.12.9 Factors Affecting the Diffusion and Solubility Coefficients
113(1)
4.12.9.1 Pressure
113(1)
4.12.9.2 Sorption
114(1)
4.12.9.3 Temperature
115(2)
4.12.10 Transmission Rate
117(5)
4.12.11 Migration
122(1)
4.12.12 Permeability of Multilayer Materials
122(3)
4.12.13 Measurement of Permeability
125(1)
4.12.13.1 Gas Permeability
125
4.12.13.2 Water Vapor Permeability
121(7)
4.12.13.3 Permeability of Organic Compounds
128(1)
References
128(3)
Chapter 5 Processing and Converting of Thermoplastic Polymers
131(36)
5.1 Extrusion
131(3)
5.1.1 Monolayer Extrusion
131(2)
5.1.2 Coextrusion
133(1)
5.2 Calendering
134(1)
5.3 Coating and Laminating
134(4)
5.3.1 Surface Treatment
135(1)
5.3.1.1 Surface Energy
135(1)
5.3.1.2 Corona Treatment
135(1)
5.3.1.3 Flame Treatment
136(1)
5.3.1.4 Priming
136(1)
5.3.1.5 Chemical Treatment
136(1)
5.3.2 Coating Processes
136(1)
5.3.3 Laminating Processes
137(1)
5.4 Blending
138(1)
5.5 Vapor Deposition
139(8)
5.5.1 Physical Vapor Deposition
140(2)
5.5.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition
142(1)
5.5.2.1 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
142(4)
5.5.2.2 Combustion Chemical Vapor Deposition
146(1)
5.5.3 Atomic Layer Chemical Vapor Deposition
146(1)
5.6 Nanocomposites
147(5)
5.6.1 Nanoclays
147(1)
5.6.2 Intercalation and Exfoliation
148(1)
5.6.3 Synthesis of PCNs
149(1)
5.6.4 Barrier Properties
150(1)
5.6.5 Applications
150(1)
5.6.6 Bionanocomposites
151(1)
5.6.7 Future Developments
151(1)
5.7 Orientation
152(4)
5.7.1 Orientation Processes
153(2)
5.7.2 Shrink Films
155(1)
5.7.3 Stretch Films
155(1)
5.8 Cross-Linking
156(1)
5.9 Microperforation
157(1)
5.10 Injection Molding
158(1)
5.11 Blow Molding
159(4)
5.11.1 Extrusion Blow Molding
159(1)
5.11.2 Injection Blow Molding
160(1)
5.11.3 Stretch Blow Molding
161(2)
5.12 Thermoforming
163(1)
5.13 Foamed (Cellular) Plastics
163(4)
References
164(3)
Chapter 6 Paper and Paper-Based Packaging Materials
167(22)
6.1 Pulp
167(6)
6.1.1 Introduction to Pulping
168(1)
6.1.2 Mechanical Pulps
169(1)
6.1.3 Chemical Pulps
169(1)
6.1.3.1 Alkaline Processes
170(1)
6.1.3.2 Sulfite Processes
170(1)
6.1.4 Semichemical Pulps
171(1)
6.1.5 Digestion
171(1)
6.1.6 Bleaching
172(1)
6.1.6.1 Mechanical Pulps
172(1)
6.1.6.2 Chemical Pulps
172(1)
6.1.6.3 Recycled Pulps
173(1)
6.2 Paper
173(9)
6.2.1 Beating and Refining
174(1)
6.2.2 Papermaking
175(1)
6.2.2.1 Fourdrinier Machine
175(1)
6.2.2.2 Cylinder Machine
176(1)
6.2.2.3 Twin-Wire Formers
176(1)
6.2.2.4 Presses and Dryers
177(1)
6.2.3 Converting
177(1)
6.2.3.1 Calendering
177(1)
6.2.3.2 Sizing
178(1)
6.2.3.3 Barrier Coatings
178(2)
6.2.3.4 Pigments
180(1)
6.2.4 Physical Properties
180(1)
6.2.5 Types of Paper
181(1)
6.2.5.1 Kraft Paper
181(1)
6.2.5.2 Bleached Paper
181(1)
6.2.5.3 Greaseproof Paper
181(1)
6.2.5.4 Glassine Paper
181(1)
6.2.5.5 Vegetable Parchment
182(1)
6.2.5.6 Waxed Paper
182(1)
6.3 Paperboard Products
182(7)
6.3.1 Folding Cartons
183(1)
6.3.2 Beverage Cartons
184(1)
6.3.3 Molded Pulp Containers
185(1)
References
186(3)
Chapter 7 Metal Packaging Materials
189(40)
7.1 Introduction
189(1)
7.2 Manufacture of Tinplate
190(5)
7.2.1 Manufacture of Pig Iron
190(1)
7.2.2 Steelmaking
191(2)
7.2.3 Tinplating
193(2)
7.3 Manufacture of ECCS
195(1)
7.4 Manufacture of Aluminum
195(2)
7.5 Container-Making Processes
197(12)
7.5.1 End Manufacture
197(1)
7.5.2 Three-Piece Can Manufacture
198(1)
7.5.2.1 Welded Side Seams
198(1)
7.5.2.2 Soldered Side Seams
199(1)
7.5.2.3 Double Seaming
199(1)
7.5.3 Two-Piece Can Manufacture
200(1)
7.5.3.1 Drawn and Ironed
201(1)
7.5.3.2 Drawn and Redrawn
202(1)
7.5.4 Protective and Decorative Coatings
203(1)
7.5.4.1 Protective Coatings
203(6)
7.5.4.2 Decorative Coatings
209(1)
7.6 Aluminum Foils and Containers
209(3)
7.6.1 Aluminum Foil
209(1)
7.6.2 Tube
210(1)
7.6.3 Retort Pouch
210(2)
7.6.4 Bottle
212(1)
7.7 Corrosion of Metal Packaging Materials
212(17)
7.7.1 Fundamental Concepts
212(1)
7.7.1.1 Introduction
212(1)
7.7.1.2 Electrochemical Corrosion
212(1)
7.7.1.3 Electrochemical Series
213(2)
7.7.1.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of Corrosion
215(1)
7.7.1.5 Passivity
215(1)
7.7.1.6 Stress Corrosion Cracking
216(1)
7.7.2 Corrosion of Tinplate
216(1)
7.7.2.1 Corrosion of Plain Tinplate Cans
216(2)
7.7.2.2 Corrosion of Enameled Cans
218(2)
7.7.2.3 Corrosiveness of Foods
220(3)
7.7.2.4 Effects of Processing and Storage
223(1)
7.7.2.5 External Corrosion of Cans
224(2)
7.7.3 Corrosion of ECCS
226(1)
7.7.4 Corrosion of Aluminum
226(1)
References
227(2)
Chapter 8 Glass Packaging Materials
229(14)
8.1 Introduction
229(1)
8.2 Composition and Structure
229(2)
8.3 Physical Properties
231(3)
8.3.1 Mechanical Properties
231(1)
8.3.2 Thermal Properties
232(1)
8.3.3 Optical Properties
233(1)
8.4 Manufacture
234(4)
8.4.1 Mixing and Melting
234(1)
8.4.2 Forming Processes
235(1)
8.4.2.1 Blow and Blow
235(1)
8.4.2.2 Wide Mouth Press and Blow
236(1)
8.4.2.3 Narrow Neck Press and Blow
237(1)
8.4.3 Annealing
237(1)
8.4.4 Surface Treatments
237(1)
8.4.4.1 Hot-End Treatment
237(1)
8.4.4.2 Cold-End Treatment
238(1)
8.4.4.3 Shrink Sleeves
238(1)
8.4.5 Defects in Glass Containers
238(1)
8.5 Glass Container Design
238(3)
8.5.1 Glass Container Nomenclature
239(1)
8.5.2 Glass Container Strength Factors
240(1)
8.6 Closures for Glass Containers
241(2)
References
241(2)
Chapter 9 Printing Processes, Inks, Adhesives and Labeling of Packaging Materials
243(28)
9.1 Introduction
243(1)
9.2 Printing Processes
244(6)
9.2.1 Relief
244(1)
9.2.1.1 Letterpress
244(1)
9.2.1.2 Flexography
244(1)
9.2.1.3 Flexo Process
245(1)
9.2.2 Gravure
246(1)
9.2.3 Lithography
247(1)
9.2.4 Screen
248(1)
9.2.5 Digital
248(1)
9.2.5.1 Ink-Jet
249(1)
9.2.5.2 Electrophotography
249(1)
9.3 Inks
250(6)
9.3.1 Introduction
250(1)
9.3.1.1 Below the Surface
251(1)
9.3.1.2 On the Surface
251(1)
9.3.1.3 Above the Surface
251(1)
9.3.1.4 Through the Surface
251(1)
9.3.1.5 No Surface
251(1)
9.3.2 Ink Components
251(2)
9.3.3 Liquid Inks
253(1)
9.3.3.1 Flexographic Ink
253(1)
9.3.3.2 Gravure Ink
253(1)
9.3.3.3 Screen Ink
254(1)
9.3.3.4 Digital Ink
254(1)
9.3.4 Paste Inks
255(1)
9.3.4.1 Offset Lithographic Inks
255(1)
9.3.4.2 Letterset Inks
255(1)
9.3.4.3 Letterpress Inks
255(1)
9.3.5 Thermochromic Inks
255(1)
9.4 Adhesives
256(4)
9.4.1 Natural Materials
257(1)
9.4.1.1 Starch
258(1)
9.4.1.2 Protein
258(1)
9.4.1.3 Natural Rubber Latex
258(1)
9.4.2 Synthetic Materials
259(1)
9.4.2.1 Water-Borne Adhesives
259(1)
9.4.2.2 Hot-Melt Adhesives
259(1)
9.4.2.3 Solvent-Based Adhesives
259(1)
9.4.2.4 Pressure-Sensitive Adhesives
259(1)
9.5 Labeling
260(2)
9.5.1 Glued-On Labels
260(1)
9.5.2 Self-Adhesive (Pressure-Sensitive) Labels
260(1)
9.5.3 In-Mold Labels
260(1)
9.5.4 Sleeve Labels
261(1)
9.5.5 Holographic Labels
261(1)
9.6 Coding
262(9)
9.6.1 Bar Codes
263(2)
9.6.2 RFID
265(3)
References
268(3)
Chapter 10 Food Packaging Closures and Sealing Systems
271(22)
10.1 Closures for Glass and Plastic Containers
271(7)
10.1.1 Closure Functions
271(1)
10.1.2 Closure Construction
272(1)
10.1.3 Food Container Closures
272(1)
10.1.3.1 Closures to Retain Internal Pressure
273(1)
10.1.3.2 Closures to Contain and Protect Contents
274(3)
10.1.3.3 Closures to Maintain Vacuum inside Container
277(1)
10.1.3.4 Closures to Secure Contents inside Container
277(1)
10.2 Heat Sealing
278(8)
10.2.1 Conductance Sealing
279(1)
10.2.2 Impulse Sealing
280(1)
10.2.3 Dielectric Sealing
281(1)
10.2.4 Induction Sealing
282(1)
10.2.5 Ultrasonic Sealing
283(1)
10.2.6 Hot-Wire and Hot-Knife Sealing
284(1)
10.2.7 Testing of Heat Seals
284(2)
10.3 Peelable Seals
286(4)
10.3.1 Adhesive Peel
286(1)
10.3.2 Cohesive Peel
286(2)
10.3.3 Delamination Peel
288(1)
10.3.4 Heat Seal Coatings
288(1)
10.3.5 Seal Interface Temperature
289(1)
10.3.6 Nanocomposite Heat Sealants
289(1)
10.4 Cold Seals
290(3)
References
290(3)
Chapter 11 Deteriorative Reactions in Foods
293(36)
11.1 Introduction
293(1)
11.2 Deteriorative Reactions in Foods
294(13)
11.2.1 Enzymic Reactions
294(1)
11.2.2 Chemical Reactions
295(1)
11.2.2.1 Sensory Quality
295(3)
11.2.2.2 Nutritional Quality
298(1)
11.2.3 Physical Changes
299(1)
11.2.4 Biological Changes
300(1)
11.2.4.1 Microbiological
300(4)
11.2.4.2 Macrobiological
304(3)
11.3 Rates of Deteriorative Reactions
307(7)
11.3.1 Zero-Order Reactions
308(2)
11.3.2 First-Order Reactions
310(2)
11.3.3 Microbial Growth and Destruction
312(1)
11.3.3.1 Microbial Growth
312(1)
11.3.3.2 Microbial Destruction
313(1)
11.4 Intrinsic Factors Controlling the Rates of Deteriorative Reactions
314(6)
11.4.1 Water Activity
314(1)
11.4.1.1 Definitions
314(1)
11.4.1.2 Isotherms
314(3)
11.4.1.3 Water Activity and Food Stability
317(3)
11.4.2 Oxidation-Reduction Potential
320(1)
11.5 Extrinsic Factors Controlling the Rates of Deteriorative Reactions
320(9)
11.5.1 Temperature
320(1)
11.5.1.1 Linear Model
321(1)
11.5.1.2 Arrhenius Relationship
321(1)
11.5.1.3 Temperature Quotient
322(2)
11.5.1.4 Beleradek Function
324(1)
11.5.2 Gas Atmosphere
324(1)
11.5.3 Light
325(1)
References
326(3)
Chapter 12 Shelf Life of Foods
329(38)
12.1 Definitions
329(2)
12.2 Shelf Life Determination
331(3)
12.2.1 Introduction
331(1)
12.2.2 Critical Descriptors and Indices of Failure
332(1)
12.2.3 Cutoff Point
333(1)
12.2.4 Influence of Packaging Material
334(1)
12.3 Determining Shelf Life from the Product Side
334(17)
12.3.1 Product Characteristics
334(1)
12.3.1.1 Perishability
334(1)
12.3.1.2 Bulk Density
335(1)
12.3.1.3 Concentration Effects
335(1)
12.3.2 Package Properties
336(1)
12.3.2.1 Water Vapor Transfer
336(5)
12.3.2.2 Gas and Odor Transfer
341(2)
12.3.2.3 Light Transmission
343(1)
12.3.2.4 Package Dimensions
344(1)
12.3.2.5 Package/Product Interactions
344(1)
12.3.3 Distribution Environment
345(1)
12.3.3.1 Climatic
345(6)
12.3.3.2 Physical
351(1)
12.4 Predicting Microbial Shelf Life
351(3)
12.5 Accelerated Shelf Life Testing
354(6)
12.5.1 Basic Principles
354(2)
12.5.2 ASLT Procedures
356(1)
12.5.3 Examples of ASLT Procedures
357(1)
12.5.3.1 Dehydrated Products
357(1)
12.5.3.2 Frozen Foods
357(1)
12.5.3.3 Canned Foods
358(1)
12.5.3.4 Oxygen-Sensitive Products
358(1)
12.5.3.5 Oxygen-Absorbing Package
358(1)
12.5.3.6 Long-Duration Spaceflight
359(1)
12.5.4 Problems in the Use of ASLT Conditions
359(1)
12.6 Determining Shelf Life from the Consumer Side
360(2)
12.7 Shelf Life Devices
362(1)
12.8 Some Cautionary Advice
363(4)
References
363(4)
Chapter 13 Aseptic Packaging of Foods
367(16)
13.1 Introduction
367(3)
13.1.1 Historical Development
367(1)
13.1.2 Principles of Sterilization
368(2)
13.2 Sterilization of Packaging Material Food Contact Surfaces
370(4)
13.2.1 Required Count Reduction
370(1)
13.2.2 Irradiation
371(1)
13.2.2.1 Ionizing Radiation
371(1)
13.2.2.2 Pulsed Light
371(1)
13.2.2.3 UV-C Radiation
371(1)
13.2.2.4 Plasma
371(1)
13.2.3 Heat
372(1)
13.2.3.1 Saturated Steam
372(1)
13.2.3.2 Superheated Steam
372(1)
13.2.3.3 Hot Air
372(1)
13.2.3.4 Hot Air and Steam
372(1)
13.2.3.5 Extrusion
372(1)
13.2.4 Chemical Treatments
373(1)
13.2.4.1 Hydrogen Peroxide
373(1)
13.2.4.2 Peracetic Acid
374(1)
13.2.5 Verification of Sterilization Processes
374(1)
13.3 Aseptic Packaging Systems
374(7)
13.3.1 Carton Systems
374(1)
13.3.1.1 Form-Fill-Seal Cartons
375(1)
13.3.1.2 Prefabricated Cartons
376(1)
13.3.2 Can Systems
377(1)
13.3.3 Bottle Systems
378(1)
13.3.3.1 Glass
378(1)
13.3.3.2 Plastics
378(1)
13.3.4 Sachet and Pouch Systems
379(1)
13.3.4.1 Form-Fill-Seal Systems
379(1)
13.3.4.2 Bag-in-Box System
380(1)
13.3.4.3 Lay-Flat Tubing
380(1)
13.3.5 Cup Systems
380(1)
13.3.5.1 Preformed Plastic Cups
380(1)
13.3.5.2 Form-Fill-Seal Cups
381(1)
13.4 Integrity Testing of Aseptic Packages
381(2)
References
382(1)
Chapter 14 Packaging of Microwavable Foods
383(16)
14.1 Introduction
383(1)
14.2 Basic Principles
383(9)
14.2.1 Microwave Oven Operation
383(2)
14.2.2 Microwave Heating Mechanisms
385(1)
14.2.2.1 Dipole Polarization
386(1)
14.2.2.2 Ionic Conductivity
386(1)
14.2.3 Dielectric Properties
387(1)
14.2.4 Energy Conversion
387(3)
14.2.5 Penetration of Microwaves
390(1)
14.2.6 Nonuniform Heating
391(1)
14.3 Effect of Food Product
392(1)
14.4 Packaging
392(5)
14.4.1 Transparent Materials
392(1)
14.4.2 Absorbent Materials
393(2)
14.4.3 Shielding and Field Modification
395(1)
14.4.4 Doneness Indicators
396(1)
14.4.5 Testing Methods and Safety
396(1)
14.5 Conclusion
397(2)
References
397(2)
Chapter 15 Active and Intelligent Packaging
399(30)
15.1 Historical Development
399(1)
15.2 Definitions
400(3)
15.2.1 Active Packaging
400(2)
15.2.2 Intelligent Packaging
402(1)
15.3 Active Packaging Systems
403(11)
15.3.1 Sachets and Pads
403(1)
15.3.1.1 O2 Absorbers
403(2)
15.3.1.2 CO2 Absorbers/Emitters
405(1)
15.3.1.3 Ethylene Absorbers
405(1)
15.3.1.4 Ethanol Emitters
406(1)
15.3.1.5 Moisture Absorbers
406(1)
15.3.2 Active Packaging Materials
406(1)
15.3.2.1 O2-Absorbing Materials
406(2)
15.3.2.2 Ethylene Adsorbers
408(1)
15.3.2.3 Antioxidant Packaging
408(1)
15.3.2.4 Antimicrobial Packaging
408(3)
15.3.2.5 Flavor/Odor Absorbers and Releasers
411(1)
15.3.2.6 Microwave Susceptors
411(1)
15.3.3 Self-Heating and Self-Cooling Packages
412(1)
15.3.4 Changing Gas Permeability
412(1)
15.3.5 Widgets
413(1)
15.4 Intelligent Packaging
414(10)
15.4.1 Indicating Product Quality
414(1)
15.4.1.1 Quality or Freshness Indicators
414(1)
15.4.1.2 Time-Temperature Indicators
415(3)
15.4.1.3 Gas Concentration Indicators
418(2)
15.4.1.4 Radio Frequency Identification
420(1)
15.4.1.5 Biosensors
421(1)
15.4.2 Providing More Convenience
422(1)
15.4.2.1 Thermochromic Inks
422(1)
15.4.2.2 Microwave Doneness Indicators
422(1)
15.4.3 Providing Protection against Theft, Counterfeiting and Tampering
423(1)
15.5 Safety and Regulatory Issues
424(1)
15.6 Conclusions
425(4)
References
425(4)
Chapter 16 Modified Atmosphere Packaging
429(16)
16.1 Introduction
429(2)
16.1.1 Definitions
429(1)
16.1.2 History of MAP
430(1)
16.2 Principles
431(2)
16.3 Gases Used in MAP
433(3)
16.3.1 Carbon Dioxide
433(1)
16.3.2 Oxygen
434(1)
16.3.3 Nitrogen
434(1)
16.3.4 Carbon Monoxide
434(1)
16.3.5 Noble Gases
435(1)
16.3.6 Gas Mixtures
435(1)
16.4 Methods of Creating MA Conditions
436(1)
16.4.1 Passive MA
436(1)
16.4.2 Active MA
436(1)
16.5 Equipment for MAP
437(1)
16.5.1 Form-Fill-Seal Machines
437(1)
16.5.2 Chamber Machines
437(1)
16.5.3 Snorkel Machines
437(1)
16.6 Packaging for MAP Applications
437(1)
16.7 Microbiology of MAP
438(2)
16.8 Safety of MAP
440(1)
16.9 Refrigerated, Pasteurized Foods with Extended Durability and Sous Vide
441(1)
16.10 Applications of MAP
442(3)
References
443(2)
Chapter 17 Packaging of Flesh Foods
445(32)
17.1 Introduction
445(1)
17.2 Red Meat
445(18)
17.2.1 Color of Red Meat
445(1)
17.2.1.1 Introduction
445(1)
17.2.1.2 Myoglobin Pigments
445(1)
17.2.1.3 Role of Oxygen
446(3)
17.2.1.4 Color Intensity
449(1)
17.2.1.5 Role of Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide
450(1)
17.2.1.6 Lighting
451(1)
17.2.1.7 Effect of Temperature
451(1)
17.2.1.8 Effect of Freezing
451(1)
17.2.2 Microbiology of Red Meat
451(1)
17.2.2.1 Introduction
451(1)
17.2.2.2 Effect of Temperature
452(1)
17.2.2.3 Effect of Gaseous Atmosphere
452(2)
17.2.3 Lipid Oxidation
454(1)
17.2.4 Vacuum Packaging of Fresh Meat
454(1)
17.2.4.1 Vacuum Packaging Systems
455(3)
17.2.4.2 Shelf Life of Vacuum Packaged Red Meats
458(1)
17.2.5 Modified Atmosphere Packaging of Fresh Meat
459(1)
17.2.5.1 High Oxygen MAP
460(1)
17.2.5.2 Low Oxygen MAP
461(1)
17.2.5.3 Ultra Low Oxygen MAP
461(1)
17.2.6 Packaging of Frozen and Restructured Meats
462(1)
17.3 Cured and Cooked Meats
463(2)
17.4 Poultry
465(2)
17.5 Seafood
467(10)
17.5.1 Types of Spoilage
467(2)
17.5.2 Vacuum and Modified Atmosphere Packaging
469(2)
17.5.3 Safety Aspects of Packaged Seafood
471(2)
References
473(4)
Chapter 18 Packaging of Horticultural Products
477(32)
18.1 Introduction
477(1)
18.2 Postharvest Physiology
477(6)
18.2.1 Respiration
477(2)
18.2.1.1 Internal Factors Affecting Respiration
479(1)
18.2.1.2 External Factors Affecting Respiration
479(3)
18.2.2 Transpiration
482(1)
18.2.2.1 Introduction
482(1)
18.2.2.2 Factors Influencing Transpiration
482(1)
18.2.3 Postharvest Decay
483(1)
18.3 Modified Atmosphere Packaging of Fresh Horticultural Produce
483(11)
18.3.1 Introduction
483(1)
18.3.2 Factors Affecting MAP
484(1)
18.3.2.1 Resistance to Diffusion
485(1)
18.3.2.2 Respiration
486(1)
18.3.2.3 Temperature
486(1)
18.3.3 Methods of Creating MA Conditions
487(1)
18.3.4 Design of MAPs
487(1)
18.3.4.1 General Concepts
487(2)
18.3.4.2 Developing a Predictive Model
489(5)
18.4 Packaging of Horticultural Products
494(15)
18.4.1 Fresh and Minimally Processed Horticultural Produce
494(1)
18.4.1.1 Introduction
494(1)
18.4.1.2 Packaging Materials
495(3)
18.4.1.3 Safety of MAP Produce
498(3)
18.4.2 Frozen
501(1)
18.4.3 Canned
502(1)
18.4.4 Dehydrated
502(1)
18.4.5 Vegetable Oils
503(2)
References
505(4)
Chapter 19 Packaging of Dairy Products
509(36)
19.1 Introduction
509(1)
19.2 Fluid Milk
509(10)
19.2.1 Pasteurized Milk
509(1)
19.2.1.1 Effect of Microorganisms
509(1)
19.2.1.2 Effect of Temperature
510(1)
19.2.1.3 Effect of Light
511(2)
19.2.1.4 Effect of Gases
513(1)
19.2.1.5 Packaging Materials
514(2)
19.2.2 UHT Milk
516(1)
19.2.2.1 Process Description
516(1)
19.2.2.2 Microbiology
516(1)
19.2.2.3 Nutrition
517(1)
19.2.2.4 Biochemical and Physical Aspects
518(1)
19.2.2.5 Flavor
518(1)
19.2.2.6 Packaging Materials
519(1)
19.3 Fermented Products
519(2)
19.4 Butter and Spreads
521(3)
19.4.1 Composition
521(1)
19.4.2 Packaging Requirements
522(1)
19.4.2.1 Oxidation
522(2)
19.4.2.2 Water Vapor Permeability
524(1)
19.4.2.3 Odor Permeability
524(1)
19.4.2.4 Packaging in Current Use
524(1)
19.5 Cheese
524(11)
19.5.1 Classification
524(1)
19.5.2 Microbiology
525(1)
19.5.3 Packaging Requirements
525(1)
19.5.3.1 Very Hard and Hard
526(4)
19.5.3.2 Semisoft and Soft
530(2)
19.5.3.3 Fresh
532(2)
19.5.3.4 Processed Cheese and Analogues
534(1)
19.6 Milk Powders
535(10)
19.6.1 Manufacture and Properties
535(1)
19.6.2 Deteriorative Reactions
536(1)
19.6.2.1 Oxidation
536(1)
19.6.2.2 Browning
537(1)
19.6.2.3 Caking
537(1)
19.6.3 Packaging Requirements
537(1)
19.6.3.1 O2 Permeability
537(1)
19.6.3.2 Water Vapor Permeability
537(1)
19.6.3.3 Light
538(1)
19.6.4 Packaging Materials
538(1)
19.6.4.1 Metal Cans
538(1)
19.6.4.2 Laminates
539(1)
19.6.4.3 Fiber Cans
539(1)
19.6.5 Packaging Techniques
539(1)
19.6.5.1 Gas Packing
539(1)
19.6.5.2 Vacuum Packaging
540(1)
References
540(5)
Chapter 20 Packaging of Cereals, Snack Foods and Confectionery
545(32)
20.1 Introduction
545(1)
20.2 Grains
545(2)
20.2.1 Wheat
545(1)
20.2.2 Flour
546(1)
20.2.3 Rice
547(1)
20.3 Breakfast Cereals
547(3)
20.3.1 Manufacture
547(1)
20.3.2 Indices of Failure
548(1)
20.3.3 Packaging
548(1)
20.3.3.1 Loss of Crispness
548(1)
20.3.3.2 Lipid Oxidation
549(1)
20.3.3.3 Loss of Vitamins
550(1)
20.3.3.4 Mechanical Damage
550(1)
20.3.3.5 Loss of Flavor
550(1)
20.4 Pastas
550(4)
20.4.1 Dried Pasta
551(1)
20.4.2 Fresh Pasta
551(1)
20.4.3 Noodles
552(2)
20.5 Bakery Products
554(10)
20.5.1 Bread
554(1)
20.5.1.1 Manufacture
554(1)
20.5.1.2 Indices of Failure
555(2)
20.5.1.3 Packaging
557(3)
20.5.2 Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers
560(1)
20.5.2.1 Manufacture
560(1)
20.5.2.2 Indices of Failure
560(3)
20.5.2.3 Packaging
563(1)
20.6 Snack Foods
564(5)
20.6.1 Fried Snack Foods
564(1)
20.6.1.1 Manufacture
564(1)
20.6.1.2 Indices of Failure
564(1)
20.6.1.3 Packaging
565(2)
20.6.2 Extruded and Puffed Snacks
567(1)
20.6.2.1 Manufacture
567(1)
20.6.2.2 Indices of Failure
568(1)
20.6.2.3 Packaging
568(1)
20.6.3 Fruit-Based Snacks
569(1)
20.7 Confectionery
569(8)
20.7.1 Sugar Confectionery (Candy)
569(1)
20.7.1.1 Manufacture
569(1)
20.7.1.2 Indices of Failure
570(1)
20.7.1.3 Packaging
571(1)
20.7.2 Chocolate
572(1)
20.7.2.1 Manufacture
572(1)
20.7.2.2 Indices of Failure
572(1)
20.7.2.3 Packaging
572(1)
References
573(4)
Chapter 21 Packaging of Beverages
577(30)
21.1 Introduction
577(1)
21.2 Water
577(3)
21.2.1 Introduction
577(1)
21.2.2 Indices of Failure
578(1)
21.2.3 Packaging
579(1)
21.3 Carbonated Soft Drinks
580(3)
21.3.1 Manufacture
580(1)
21.3.2 Indices of Failure
581(1)
21.3.3 Packaging
581(1)
21.3.3.1 Glass
581(1)
21.3.3.2 Metal
581(1)
21.3.3.3 Plastics
582(1)
21.4 Coffee
583(6)
21.4.1 Manufacture
583(1)
21.4.2 Indices of Failure
584(1)
21.4.3 Packaging
585(1)
21.4.3.1 Roasted Whole Beans
585(1)
21.4.3.2 Roasted and Ground Coffee
586(2)
21.4.3.3 Instant Coffee
588(1)
21.5 Tea
589(2)
21.5.1 Manufacture
589(1)
21.5.1.1 Black Tea
589(1)
21.5.1.2 Green Tea
589(1)
21.5.2 Indices of Failure
589(1)
21.5.2.1 Black Tea
589(1)
21.5.2.2 Green Tea
589(1)
21.5.3 Packaging
590(1)
21.6 Juices
591(3)
21.6.1 Manufacture
591(1)
21.6.2 Indices of Failure
591(1)
21.6.3 Packaging
592(2)
21.7 Beer
594(4)
21.7.1 Manufacture
594(1)
21.7.2 Indices of Failure
594(1)
21.7.3 Packaging
595(1)
21.7.3.1 Glass
595(1)
21.7.3.2 Metal
596(1)
21.7.3.3 Plastics
597(1)
21.8 Wine
598(9)
21.8.1 Introduction
598(1)
21.8.2 Classification
598(1)
21.8.3 Winemaking
598(1)
21.8.4 Indices of Failure
599(1)
21.8.5 Packaging
599(1)
21.8.5.1 Glass
599(2)
21.8.5.2 Plastics
601(1)
21.8.5.3 Metal
602(1)
21.8.5.4 Laminated Paperboard Cartons
602(1)
References
603(4)
Chapter 22 Legislative and Safety Aspects of Food Packaging
607(38)
22.1 Introduction
607(2)
22.1.1 Package Selection Criteria
607(1)
22.1.2 Migration
607(2)
22.2 Regulatory Considerations
609(13)
22.2.1 General Requirements
609(2)
22.2.2 United States of America
611(7)
22.2.3 European Union
618(1)
22.2.3.1 Background
618(1)
22.2.3.2 Directives
618(4)
22.3 Plastics Packaging
622(5)
22.3.1 Vinyl Chloride Monomer
622(1)
22.3.2 Styrene Monomer
623(1)
22.3.3 Acrylonitrile Monomer
623(1)
22.3.4 Plasticizers
624(1)
22.3.4.1 Phthalate and Adipate Esters
624(1)
22.3.4.2 Acetyltributyl Citrate
625(1)
22.3.4.3 Epoxidized Soy Bean Oil
626(1)
22.3.5 Antioxidants
626(1)
22.4 Metal Packaging
627(4)
22.4.1 Tin
627(1)
22.4.2 Lead
628(1)
22.4.3 Aluminum
628(1)
22.4.4 Chromium
629(1)
22.4.5 Silver
629(1)
22.4.6 Epoxy Resin Coatings
630(1)
22.5 Paper Packaging
631(5)
22.5.1 Dioxins
631(1)
22.5.2 Benzophenone
632(1)
22.5.3 Isopropylthioxanthone
633(1)
22.5.4 Mineral Oil Saturated Hydrocarbons
633(1)
22.5.5 Miscellaneous
634(2)
22.6 Glass Packaging
636(1)
22.7 Taints and Off-Flavors
636(4)
22.7.1 Solvents
636(1)
22.7.2 Residual Monomers
637(1)
22.7.3 Organohalogens
637(3)
22.7.4 Miscellaneous
640(1)
22.8 Traceability
640(5)
References
640(5)
Chapter 23 Food Packaging and Sustainability
645(30)
23.1 Introduction
645(2)
23.1.1 What Is Waste?
646(1)
23.2 Waste Management Options
647(13)
23.2.1 Hierarchy of Waste Management
647(1)
23.2.2 Source Reduction
648(1)
23.2.3 Recycling
649(1)
23.2.3.1 Closed-Loop Recycling
649(1)
23.2.3.2 Collection and Sorting
650(1)
23.2.3.3 Materials Recovery Facility
650(1)
23.2.3.4 Benefits
650(3)
23.2.3.5 Technologies
653(3)
23.2.4 Composting
656(1)
23.2.5 Thermal Treatment
657(1)
23.2.6 Landfill
658(2)
23.3 Life Cycle Assessment
660(6)
23.3.1 Goal Definition and Scoping
661(1)
23.3.2 Life Cycle Inventory
661(1)
23.3.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment
662(1)
23.3.4 Life Cycle Interpretation
662(1)
23.3.5 Limitations of LCA
662(1)
23.3.6 Uses of LCAs
663(1)
23.3.7 Tools for LCA
664(1)
23.3.8 Carbon Footprinting
664(2)
23.4 Packaging and Environmental Policies
666(3)
23.4.1 United States
666(1)
23.4.1.1 Container Deposits
666(1)
23.4.1.2 Extended Product Responsibility
667(1)
23.4.2 Europe
667(1)
23.4.2.1 Producer Responsibility
667(1)
23.4.2.2 German Packaging Ordinance
668(1)
23.4.2.3 Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive
668(1)
23.5 Packaging and Sustainability
669(6)
23.5.1 Sustainable Development
669(1)
23.5.2 Sustainable Packaging
670(2)
23.5.3 Sustainability Reporting
672(1)
23.5.4 Supply Chain Management
672(1)
References
673(2)
Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols 675(12)
Index 687
Gordon L. Robertson is a food packaging consultant and an adjunct Professor in the School of Agriculture and Food Sciences at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.