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Fundamentals of Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry: Textbook and Solutions [Kõva köide]

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  • Formaat: Hardback, 1200 pages, kõrgus x laius x paksus: 249x173x61 mm, kaal: 2313 g
  • Ilmumisaeg: 16-Aug-2017
  • Kirjastus: Blackwell Verlag GmbH
  • ISBN-10: 3527343539
  • ISBN-13: 9783527343539
Teised raamatud teemal:
Fundamentals of Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry: Textbook and SolutionsSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: Hardback, 1200 pages, kõrgus x laius x paksus: 249x173x61 mm, kaal: 2313 g
  • Ilmumisaeg: 16-Aug-2017
  • Kirjastus: Blackwell Verlag GmbH
  • ISBN-10: 3527343539
  • ISBN-13: 9783527343539
Teised raamatud teemal:
Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9783527343539.html
The textbook "Fundamentals of Ionizing Radition Dosimetry" bundled with the workbook containing solutions to the exercises is the perfect pair for anyone seriously interested in radiation dosimetry.
Fundamentals of Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry
Preface
xix
Quantities and symbols
xxiii
Acronyms
xxxix
1 Background and Essentials
1(28)
1.1 Introduction
1(1)
1.2 Types and Sources of Ionizing Radiation
1(3)
1.3 Consequences of the Random Nature of Radiation
4(2)
1.4 Interaction Cross Sections
6(3)
1.5 Kinematic Relativistic Expressions
9(2)
1.6 Atomic Relaxations
11(11)
1.6.1 Radiative and Non-radiative Transitions
13(3)
1.6.2 Transition Probabilities and Fluorescence and Auger Yields
16(6)
1.6.3 Emission Cross Sections
22(1)
1.7 Evaluation of Uncertainties
22(6)
1.7.1 Accuracy and Precision - Error and Uncertainty
22(2)
1.7.2 Type A Standard Uncertainty
24(1)
1.7.3 Type B Standard Uncertainty
25(1)
1.7.4 Combined and Expanded Uncertainty
26(1)
1.7.5 Law of Propagation of Uncertainty
26(2)
Exercises
28(1)
2 Charged-Particle Interactions with Matter
29(114)
2.1 Introduction
29(2)
2.2 Types of Charged-Particle Interactions
31(5)
2.2.1 Elastic Interactions
32(1)
2.2.2 Inelastic 'Soft' Collisions
33(1)
2.2.3 Inelastic 'Hard' Collisions
34(1)
2.2.4 Inelastic Radiative Interactions
35(1)
2.3 Elastic Scattering
36(19)
2.3.1 Single Elastic Scattering (Rutherford)
36(2)
2.3.2 Screening Angle
38(3)
2.3.3 Overview of Other Single Elastic Scattering Theories
41(2)
2.3.4 Multiple Elastic Scattering
43(11)
2.3.4.1 The Gaussian Approach: Multiple Small-Angle Scattering Theory
44(3)
2.3.4.2 Moliere's Theory
47(4)
2.3.4.3 Goudsmit - Saunderson Theory
51(3)
2.3.5 Scattering Power
54(1)
2.4 Inelastic Scattering and Energy Loss
55(40)
2.4.1 Single Inelastic Scattering
56(5)
2.4.1.1 The GOS, the OOS, and Dielectric Response Functions
58(3)
2.4.2 Multiple Inelastic Scattering: Electronic Stopping Power
61(5)
2.4.3 Stopping Number
66(2)
2.4.4 The I-Value (Mean Excitation Energy)
68(3)
2.4.5 Shell Corrections
71(2)
2.4.6 Density Effect Correction (Polarization)
73(4)
2.4.7 Important Features of the Stopping Power Formula
77(7)
2.4.7.1 Dependence on the Stopping Medium
79(2)
2.4.7.2 Dependence on Particle Energy
81(1)
2.4.7.3 Dependence on Particle Charge
81(1)
2.4.7.4 Dependence on Particle Mass
82(1)
2.4.7.5 Relativistic Scaling Considerations
82(1)
2.4.7.6 Other Aspects
82(2)
2.4.8 Electronic Stopping Power for Electrons and Positrons
84(2)
2.4.9 Accuracy of Stopping-Power Calculations
86(2)
2.4.10 Impact Ionization
88(2)
2.4.11 The Bragg Peak
90(1)
2.4.12 Restricted Electronic Stopping Power
91(3)
2.4.13 Energy Loss Straggling
94(1)
2.5 Radiative Energy Loss: Bremsstrahlung
95(8)
2.5.1 Radiative Stopping Power
98(3)
2.5.2 Radiation Yield
101(1)
2.5.3 Radiation Length
102(1)
2.6 Total Stopping Power
103(1)
2.6.1 The Bragg Additive Rule for Compounds
103(1)
2.7 Range of Charged Particles
104(2)
2.7.1 Continuous-Slowing-Down Range and Range Straggling
105(1)
2.7.2 Detour Factor
106(1)
2.8 Number and Energy Distributions of Secondary Particles
106(6)
2.8.1 Number and Energy of Knock-On Electrons
108(1)
2.8.2 Number and Energy of Bremsstrahlung Photons
109(3)
2.9 Nuclear Stopping Power and Interactions by Heavy Charged Particles
112(2)
2.10 The W-Value (Mean Energy to Create an Ion Pair)
114(5)
2.10.1 Calculation of W from the Energy Balance
115(1)
2.10.2 Direct Calculation from Cross Sections
116(1)
2.10.3 Calculation from the Slowing-Down Spectrum
117(1)
2.10.4 Concluding Remarks
118(1)
2.11 Addendum - Derivation of Expressions for the Elastic and Inelastic Scattering of Heavy Charged Particles
119(20)
2.11.1 Quantum Mechanics Formalism for Elastic Scattering
120(6)
2.11.1.1 Partial-Wave Analysis (PWA)
123(3)
2.11.2 Quantum Mechanics Formalism for Inelastic Scattering (Bethe Theory)
126(8)
2.11.2.1 Stopping Power
131(3)
2.11.3 Classical Treatment of Elastic and Inelastic Scattering
134(11)
2.11.3.1 Elastic Scattering
135(1)
2.11.3.2 Inelastic Scattering
135(1)
2.11.3.3 Stopping Power
136(3)
Exercises
139(4)
3 Uncharged-Particle Interactions with Matter
143(72)
3.1 Introduction
143(1)
3.2 Photon Interactions with Matter
143(2)
3.3 Photoelectric Effect
145(9)
3.3.1 Kinematics
146(1)
3.3.2 Cross Section
147(7)
3.4 Thomson Scattering
154(3)
3.5 Rayleigh Scattering (Coherent Scattering)
157(4)
3.6 Compton Scattering (Incoherent Scattering)
161(17)
3.6.1 Kinematics
162(4)
3.6.2 Cross Section
166(6)
3.6.3 Binding Effects and Doppler Broadening
172(6)
3.7 Pair Production and Triplet Production
178(10)
3.7.1 Kinematics
179(2)
3.7.2 Cross Section
181(7)
3.7.2.1 Pair Production
181(6)
3.7.2.2 Triplet Production
187(1)
3.7.2.3 Total Pair-Production Cross Section
188(1)
3.8 Positron Annihilation
188(3)
3.8.1 Kinematics
189(2)
3.8.2 Cross Section
191(1)
3.9 Photonuclear Interactions
191(2)
3.9.1 Cross Section
192(1)
3.10 Photon Interaction Coefficients
193(11)
3.10.1 Photon Attenuation Coefficient
194(1)
3.10.2 Photon Energy-Transfer Coefficient
195(7)
3.10.2.1 Photoelectric Effect
196(2)
3.10.2.2 Compton Scattering
198(2)
3.10.2.3 Pair and Triplet Production
200(2)
3.10.3 Photon Energy-Absorption Coefficient
202(1)
3.10.4 Uncertainties in Photon Interaction Data
203(1)
3.11 Neutron Interactions
204(7)
3.11.1 General Aspects
205(1)
3.11.2 Elastic Scattering
206(3)
3.11.3 Inelastic Scattering
209(1)
3.11.4 Neutron Capture
210(1)
3.11.5 Nuclear Spallation
211(1)
3.11.6 Neutron-Induced Fission
211(1)
Exercises
211(4)
4 Field and Dosimetric Quantities, Radiation Equilibrium - Definitions and Inter-Relations
215(44)
4.1 Introduction
215(1)
4.2 Stochastic and Non-stochastic Quantities
215(1)
4.3 Radiation Field Quantities and Units
216(3)
4.3.1 Particle Number and Radiant Energy
216(1)
4.3.2 Flux and Energy Flux
217(1)
4.3.3 Fluence and Energy Fluence
217(1)
4.3.4 Fluence Rate and Energy-Fluence Rate
218(1)
4.3.5 Planar Fluence
218(1)
4.4 Distributions of Field Quantities
219(1)
4.4.1 Energy Distributions
219(1)
4.4.2 Angular Distributions - Particle Radiance and Energy Radiance
220(1)
4.4.3 Distributions in Energy and Angle
220(1)
4.5 Quantities Describing Radiation Interactions
220(9)
4.5.1 Cross Section
221(1)
4.5.2 Interaction Coefficients for Uncharged Particles
222(2)
4.5.3 Interaction Coefficients for Charged Particles
224(3)
4.5.4 Related Quantities - G(x), Y, and W
227(2)
4.6 Dosimetric Quantities
229(4)
4.6.1 Quantities Related to the Transfer of Energy
229(3)
4.6.2 Quantities Related to the Deposition of Energy
232(1)
4.6.3 Summary of the Definitions of Fundamental Dosimetric Quantities
233(1)
4.7 Relationships Between Field and Dosimetric Quantities
233(6)
4.7.1 Photons
234(2)
4.7.2 Neutrons
236(1)
4.7.3 Charged Particles
237(2)
4.8 Radiation Equilibrium (RE)
239(3)
4.9 Charged-Particle Equilibrium (CPE)
242(6)
4.9.1 CPE for Distributed Radioactive Sources
243(1)
4.9.2 CPE for External Sources of Uncharged Particles
244(3)
4.9.3 Restricted CPE for External Sources of Charged Particles (RCPE)
247(1)
4.10 Partial Charged-Particle Equilibrium (PCPE)
248(4)
4.10.1 PCPE and Relationships between Dose, Kerma, and Electronic Kerma
248(4)
4.11 Summary of the Inter-Relations between Fluence, Kerma, Cema, and Dose
252(1)
4.12 Addendum - Example Calculations of (Net) Energy Transferred and Imparted
252(4)
4.12.1 Energy Transferred
252(3)
4.12.2 Energy Imparted
255(1)
Exercises
256(3)
5 Elementary Aspects of the Attenuation of Uncharged Particles
259(20)
5.1 Introduction
259(1)
5.2 Exponential Attenuation
259(2)
5.2.1 Simple Exponential Attenuation
259(2)
5.2.2 Exponential Attenuation for Plural Modes of Absorption
261(1)
5.3 Narrow-Beam Attenuation
261(2)
5.4 Broad-Beam Attenuation
263(7)
5.4.1 Broad-Beam Geometries
266(4)
5.5 Spectral Effects
270(1)
5.6 The Build-up Factor
271(2)
5.7 Divergent Beams - The Inverse Square Law
273(3)
5.8 The Scaling Theorem
276(1)
Exercises
277(2)
6 Macroscopic Aspects of the Transport of Radiation Through Matter
279(36)
6.1 Introduction
279(1)
6.2 The Radiation Transport Equation Formalism
280(6)
6.2.1 Quantities Entering into the Formalism
281(1)
6.2.2 The Transport Equation
282(4)
6.3 Introduction to Monte Carlo Derived Distributions
286(1)
6.4 Electron Beam Distributions
287(9)
6.4.1 Fluence Distributions
287(4)
6.4.2 Dose Distributions
291(4)
6.4.3 Dose Distributions at Interfaces
295(1)
6.5 Protons and Heavier Charged Particle Beam Distributions
296(5)
6.5.1 Fluence Distributions
296(2)
6.5.2 Dose Distributions
298(3)
6.6 Photon Beam Distributions
301(8)
6.6.1 Fluence Distributions
301(3)
6.6.2 Dose Distributions
304(3)
6.6.3 Dose Distributions at Interfaces
307(2)
6.7 Neutron Beam Distributions
309(4)
6.7.1 Fluence Distributions
309(2)
6.7.2 Dose Distributions
311(2)
Exercises
313(2)
7 Characterization of Radiation Quality
315(34)
7.1 Introduction
315(1)
7.2 General Aspects of Radiation Spectra. Mean Energy
316(2)
7.3 Beam Quality Specification for Kilovoltage x-ray Beams
318(8)
7.3.1 x-ray Filtration
319(2)
7.3.2 x-ray Beam Quality Specification
321(5)
7.4 Megavoltage Photon Beam Quality Specification
326(5)
7.5 High-Energy Electron Beam Quality Specification
331(4)
7.6 Beam Quality Specification of Protons and Heavier Charged Particles
335(4)
7.7 Energy Spectra Determination
339(7)
7.7.1 Approaches for the Calculation of Energy Spectra
339(3)
7.7.2 Analytical Models for Inverse Determination of Spectra
342(3)
7.7.3 Experimental Methods
345(1)
Exercises
346(3)
8 The Monte Carlo Simulation of the Transport of Radiation Through Matter
349(48)
8.1 Introduction
349(1)
8.2 Basics of the Monte Carlo Method (MCM)
350(9)
8.2.1 Random Numbers
350(1)
8.2.2 Probability Distributions and Inverse Sampling
351(1)
8.2.3 Sampling by Rejection
352(1)
8.2.4 Sampling from Common Distributions
353(3)
8.2.5 Numerical Integration Using MCM
356(1)
8.2.6 Uncertainty, Timing, and Efficiency
357(2)
8.2.7 Combining Results from Several Monte Carlo Runs
359(1)
8.3 Simulation of Radiation Transport
359(20)
8.3.1 Generation of Particle Tracks
361(1)
8.3.2 Analogue Monte Carlo Simulation
362(3)
8.3.3 Condensed-History Monte Carlo Simulation
365(4)
8.3.4 Geometry
369(2)
8.3.5 Variance Reduction Techniques
371(8)
8.4 Monte Carlo Codes and Systems in the Public Domain
379(7)
8.5 Monte Carlo Applications in Radiation Dosimetry
386(7)
8.5.1 Radiation Sources and Generators
387(2)
8.5.2 Detector Simulation
389(2)
8.5.3 Calculation of Dosimetric Quantities
391(2)
8.6 Other Monte Carlo Developments
393(1)
Exercises
394(3)
9 Cavity Theory
397(46)
9.1 Introduction
397(2)
9.2 Cavities That Are Small Compared to Secondary Electron Ranges
399(14)
9.2.1 The Stopping-Power Ratio Concept
400(1)
9.2.2 Evaluation of the Bragg - Gray Stopping-Power Ratio
401(3)
9.2.3 Spencer - Attix Cavity Theory
404(5)
9.2.4 When Does a Cavity Behave in a Bragg - Gray Manner?
409(2)
9.2.5 Kilovoltage x-ray Qualities
411(1)
9.2.6 Electron Beams
412(1)
9.3 Stopping-Power Ratios
413(10)
9.3.1 Variation of Stopping-Power Ratios with Electron Energy
413(2)
9.3.2 Water/Air Stopping-Power Ratios in Megavoltage Beams
415(7)
9.3.2.1 Differences Between sBGw,air and sSAw,air; Depth Dependence
415(5)
9.3.2.2 Electrons - Dependence on Beam Energy and Depth
420(1)
9.3.2.3 Photons - Dependence on Beam Quality and Depth
420(2)
9.3.3 Stopping-Power Ratios for Non-gaseous Detectors in Charged-Particle Beams
422(1)
9.4 Cavities That Are Large Compared to Electron Ranges
423(2)
9.5 General or Burlin Cavity Theory
425(4)
9.6 The Fano Theorem
429(2)
9.7 Practical Detectors: Deviations from 'Ideal' Cavity Theory Conditions
431(4)
9.7.1 General Philosophy for Bragg - Gray Detectors
432(2)
9.7.2 Corrections for Non-Bragg - Gray Detectors
434(1)
9.8 Summary and Validation of Cavity Theory
435(5)
9.8.1 Key Expressions for fmed,det,Q
435(1)
9.8.2 Photons of 1 MeV in Water - Consistency of Different Cavity Integrals
435(3)
9.8.3 Transition in Detector Behavior from Bragg - Gray toward 'Large Cavity'
438(2)
Exercises
440(3)
10 Overview of Radiation Detectors and Measurements
443(30)
10.1 Introduction
443(1)
10.2 Detector Response and Calibration Coefficient
444(1)
10.3 Absolute, Reference, and Relative Dosimetry
445(2)
10.4 General Characteristics and Desirable Properties of Detectors
447(13)
10.4.1 Reproducibility
449(1)
10.4.2 Dose Range
450(2)
10.4.2.1 Dose Sensitivity
450(1)
10.4.2.2 Background Readings and Lower Range Limit
450(1)
10.4.2.3 Upper Limit of the Dose Range
451(1)
10.4.3 Dose-Rate Range
452(1)
10.4.3.1 Integrating Dosimeters
452(1)
10.4.3.2 Dose-Rate Meters
453(1)
10.4.4 Stability
453(1)
10.4.4.1 Before Irradiation
453(1)
10.4.4.2 After Irradiation
454(1)
10.4.5 Energy Dependence
454(20)
10.4.5.1 Specification
454(1)
10.4.5.2 Air-Kerma Energy Dependence
455(2)
10.4.5.3 Absorbed-Dose Energy Dependence
457(1)
10.4.5.4 Intrinsic Energy Dependence
458(1)
10.4.5.5 Modification of the Energy Dependence
459(1)
10.5 Brief Description of Various Types of Detectors
460(7)
10.6 Addendum - The Role of the Density Effect and I-Values in the Medium-to-Water Stopping-Power Ratio
467(4)
Exercises
471(2)
11 Primary Radiation Standards
473(24)
11.1 Introduction
473(1)
11.2 Free-Air Ionization Chambers
474(7)
11.2.1 Parallel-Plate Design and Operating Principle
474(3)
11.2.2 Correction Factors for Free-Air Chambers
477(1)
11.2.2.1 Ion Recombination, Polarity, and Field Distortion
477(1)
11.2.2.2 Photon Scatter and Fluorescence
477(1)
11.2.2.3 Electron Loss
477(1)
11.2.2.4 Diaphragm Corrections
478(1)
11.2.3 Alternative Free-Air Chamber Designs
478(3)
11.2.3.1 Cylindrical Chamber
478(2)
11.2.3.2 Wide-Angle Free-Air Chamber
480(1)
11.3 Primary Cavity Ionization Chambers
481(3)
11.3.1 Operating Principle
481(2)
11.3.2 Correction Factors for Cavity Chambers
483(1)
11.3.3 A Cavity Standard for Absorbed Dose
483(1)
11.4 Absorbed-Dose Calorimeters
484(4)
11.4.1 Overview
484(1)
11.4.2 Graphite Calorimeters
485(2)
11.4.3 Water Calorimeters
487(1)
11.5 Fricke Chemical Dosimeter
488(2)
11.6 International Framework for Traceability in Radiation Dosimetry
490(1)
11.6.1 The BIPM and Traceability to the SI
490(1)
11.6.2 The CIPM MRA and the KCDB
490(1)
11.7 Addendum - Experimental Derivation of Fundamental Dosimetric Quantities
491(2)
11.7.1 Derivation of Wair/e
492(1)
11.7.2 Derivation of G(Fe3+)
492(1)
Exercises
493(4)
12 Ionization Chambers
497(36)
12.1 Introduction
497(1)
12.2 Types of Ionization Chamber
498(6)
12.2.1 Cavity Chambers
498(3)
12.2.1.1 Wall Thickness
499(1)
12.2.1.2 Wall Materials and Insulators
500(1)
12.2.2 Parallel-Plate Chambers
501(2)
12.2.3 Transmission Monitor Chambers
503(1)
12.3 Measurement of Ionization Current
504(9)
12.3.1 General Considerations
504(2)
12.3.1.1 Electrometers
505(1)
12.3.1.2 General Precautions
505(1)
12.3.2 Charge Measurement
506(2)
12.3.2.1 Measurement Principle
506(1)
12.3.2.2 Capacitors
507(1)
12.3.3 Current Measurement and Electrometer Calibration
508(1)
12.3.4 Correction for Influence Quantities
508(5)
12.3.4.1 Air Temperature
509(1)
12.3.4.2 Air Pressure
510(1)
12.3.4.3 Air Humidity
510(2)
12.3.4.4 Polarity Effect
512(1)
12.4 Ion Recombination
513(11)
12.4.1 The Saturation Curve
514(1)
12.4.2 Initial Recombination and Diffusion
515(2)
12.4.2.1 Two-Voltage Method
516(1)
12.4.3 General (or Volume) Recombination
517(5)
12.4.3.1 Pulsed Radiation
518(2)
12.4.3.2 Continuous Radiation
520(2)
12.4.4 Niatel Method to Separate Initial and General Recombination
522(1)
12.4.5 Free-Electron Collection
523(1)
12.5 Addendum - Air Humidity in Dosimetry
524(7)
12.5.1 Density of Humid Air
524(3)
12.5.2 Influence of Humidity on Dosimetric Quantities
527(4)
Exercises
531(2)
13 Chemical Dosimeters
533(44)
13.1 Introduction
533(1)
13.2 Radiation Chemistry in Water
533(5)
13.2.1 Early Events
533(2)
13.2.2 Chemical Stage
535(1)
13.2.3 G(x)-Values and Primary Product Concentrations
535(3)
13.3 Chemical Heat Defect
538(1)
13.4 Ferrous Sulfate Dosimeters
539(8)
13.4.1 Determination of the Fe3+ (Ferric Ion) Concentration
541(2)
13.4.2 Temperature-Dependent Aspects of Fricke Dosimetry
543(1)
13.4.3 Composition of the Solution
543(1)
13.4.4 Irradiation Vials
544(1)
13.4.5 Energy Dependence of the Fricke Dosimeter
544(3)
13.4.5.1 Absorbed Dose to Water from Absorbed Dose to Fricke
545(1)
13.4.5.2 Energy Dependence of G(Fe3+)
546(1)
13.5 Alanine Dosimetry
547(9)
13.5.1 Signal Readout and Dose to Alanine
552(2)
13.5.2 Temperature Effects, Humidity Effect, and Linearity
554(1)
13.5.3 Energy Dependence of the Alanine Dosimeter
555(1)
13.6 Film Dosimetry
556(12)
13.6.1 Radiographic Film
556(6)
13.6.1.1 Chemical Processing
557(1)
13.6.1.2 Optical Density of Film
558(2)
13.6.1.3 Processing Conditions
560(1)
13.6.1.4 Energy Dependence
560(1)
13.6.1.5 Dose-Rate Dependence
561(1)
13.6.1.6 Film Packaging and Air Traps
561(1)
13.6.1.7 Nuclear Track Emulsions
562(1)
13.6.2 Radiochromic Film
562(6)
13.6.2.1 Film Structure
563(1)
13.6.2.2 Measurement Principle
563(1)
13.6.2.3 Radiochromic Film Calibration
564(2)
13.6.2.4 Energy Dependence
566(2)
13.7 Gel Dosimetry
568(6)
13.7.1 Fricke Gels
568(1)
13.7.2 Polymer Gels
569(1)
13.7.3 Radiation Chemical Yield of Gels
570(1)
13.7.4 Gel Readout Techniques
571(3)
13.7.4.1 Magnetic Resonance Relaxometry
571(2)
13.7.4.2 X-ray Computed Tomography Imaging
573(1)
13.7.4.3 Optical Computed Tomography Imaging
573(1)
13.7.5 Energy Dependence
574(1)
Exercises
574(3)
14 Solid-State Detector Dosimetry
577(54)
14.1 Introduction
577(1)
14.2 Thermoluminescence Dosimetry
577(14)
14.2.1 The Thermoluminescence Process
577(5)
14.2.1.1 Materials
577(2)
14.2.1.2 Randall - Wilkins Theory
579(1)
14.2.1.3 Trap Stability
580(2)
14.2.1.4 Intrinsic Efficiency of TLD Phosphors
582(1)
14.2.2 TLD Readers
582(1)
14.2.3 TLD Phosphors
583(3)
14.2.4 TLD Forms
586(1)
14.2.5 Calibration of Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
587(2)
14.2.5.1 Form
587(1)
14.2.5.2 TLD Linearity and Dose-Rate Dependence
587(1)
14.2.5.3 TLD Energy Dependence
587(2)
14.2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of TLDs
589(2)
14.2.6.1 Advantages
589(1)
14.2.6.2 Disadvantages
590(1)
14.3 Optically-Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeters
591(5)
14.3.1 OSLD Mechanism
591(2)
14.3.2 OSLD Readout
593(1)
14.3.3 OSLD Materials
594(1)
14.3.4 OSLD Energy Dependence
595(1)
14.4 Scintillation Dosimetry
596(13)
14.4.1 Introduction
596(1)
14.4.2 Light Output Efficiency
597(1)
14.4.3 Scintillator Types
598(2)
14.4.4 Light Collection and Measurement
600(6)
14.4.4.1 Scintillator Enclosure
600(1)
14.4.4.2 Light Pipe or Fiber
601(3)
14.4.4.3 PM tube or photodetector
604(1)
14.4.4.4 Cerenkov Radiation
605(1)
14.4.5 Comparison with Ionization Chambers and Other Detectors
606(1)
14.4.6 Pulse-Shape Discrimination
606(1)
14.4.7 beta-Ray Dosimetry
607(1)
14.4.8 Energy Dependence of Plastic Fiber Scintillation Dosimeters
608(1)
14.5 Semiconductor Detectors for Dosimetry
609(19)
14.5.1 Introduction
609(1)
14.5.2 Basic Operation of Reverse-Biased Semiconductor Junction Detectors
610(1)
14.5.3 Diode Dosimeters
611(4)
14.5.3.1 Diode Construction and Functioning
611(2)
14.5.3.2 Diode Energy Dependence
613(2)
14.5.4 Lithium-Drifted and HP(Ge) Detectors for Spectroscopy
615(2)
14.5.5 Use of Si(Li) as an Ion-Chamber Substitute
617(1)
14.5.6 Use of Si(Li) Junctions with Reverse Bias as Counting Dose-Rate Meters
617(1)
14.5.7 Fast-Neutron Dosimetry
618(1)
14.5.8 MOSFET Dosimeters
618(5)
14.5.8.1 MOSFET Construction and Functioning
618(4)
14.5.8.2 MOSFET Energy Dependence
622(1)
14.5.9 Diamond Detectors
623(9)
14.5.9.1 Diamond Detector Construction and Functioning
624(3)
14.5.9.2 Diamond Detector Energy Dependence
627(1)
Exercises
628(3)
15 Reference Dosimetry for External Beam Radiation Therapy
631(62)
15.1 Introduction
631(1)
15.2 A Generalized Formalism
632(4)
15.2.1 Detector Calibration Coefficient and Beam Calibration
632(3)
15.2.2 Cross-Calibration of Ionization Chambers and Detectors
635(1)
15.3 Practical Implementation of Formalisms
636(15)
15.3.1 Dosimetry Protocols for Kilovoltage X-ray Beams Based on Air-Kerma Standards
638(4)
15.3.1.1 Low-Energy kV x-ray Beams
640(2)
15.3.1.2 Medium-Energy kV x-ray Beams
642(1)
15.3.2 Dosimetry Protocols for Megavoltage Beams Based on Air-Kerma Standards
642(4)
15.3.2.1 The ND,air Chamber Coefficient
643(2)
15.3.2.2 Dose Determination in Electron and Photon Beams
645(1)
15.3.2.3 Dose Determination in Protons and Heavier Charged-Particle Beams
645(1)
15.3.3 Dosimetry Codes of Practice Based on Standards of Absorbed Dose to Water
646(5)
15.3.3.1 The Beam Quality Correction Factor, kQQo
647(1)
15.3.3.2 The QInt Approach for Reference Qualities Different from 60Co
648(3)
15.3.4 Relation between NK - ND,air and ND,W Dosimetry Protocols
651(1)
15.4 Quantities Entering into the Various Formalisms
651(18)
15.4.1 Quantities for Kilovoltage X-ray Beams
652(4)
15.4.2 Quantities for High-Energy Beams
656(15)
15.4.2.1 Stopping-Power Ratios
656(7)
15.4.2.2 Impact of the I-Value for Water on Reference Dosimetry
663(1)
15.4.2.3 Perturbation Correction Factors
664(5)
15.5 Accuracy of Radiation Therapy Reference Dosimetry
669(2)
15.6 Addendum - Perturbation Correction Factors
671(18)
15.6.1 Departure of Practical Ionization Chambers from Bragg - Gray Conditions
673(1)
15.6.2 The Correction for the Chamber Wall, pwall
674(4)
15.6.3 Correcting for the Finite Size of the Gas Cavity, pdis and pfl
678(8)
15.6.3.1 Averaging over the Cavity Volume, pdis
678(5)
15.6.3.2 Fluence Perturbation, pfl
683(3)
15.6.4 The Correction for the Central Electrode, vcel
686(1)
15.6.5 Perturbation Factors for kV X-ray Beams
687(2)
Exercises
689(4)
16 Dosimetry of Small and Composite Radiotherapy Photon Beams
693(36)
16.1 Introduction
693(1)
16.2 Overview
694(2)
16.3 The Physics of Small Megavoltage Photon Beams
696(5)
16.3.1 Charged-Particle Disequilibrium in Small Beams
696(2)
16.3.2 Source Size and Small Beams
698(1)
16.3.3 Spectral Changes in Small Beams
699(2)
16.4 Dosimetry of Small Beams
701(13)
16.4.1 Formalism
702(5)
16.4.2 Beam Quality Specification
707(2)
16.4.3 Stopping-Power Ratios for Small Beams
709(2)
16.4.4 Ionization Chamber Perturbation Effects in Small Beams
711(3)
16.5 Detectors for Small-Beam Dosimetry
714(3)
16.6 Dosimetry of Composite Fields
717(6)
16.6.1 Formalism
718(3)
16.6.2 Absence of CPE in Composite Field Dosimetry
721(1)
16.6.3 Correction Factors in Composite Field Dosimetry
721(2)
16.7 Addendum-Measurement in Plastic Phantoms
723(3)
Exercises
726(3)
17 Reference Dosimetry for Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology
729(24)
17.1 Introduction
729(1)
17.2 Specific Quantities and Units
730(6)
17.2.1 Air Kerma versus Water Kerma
733(3)
17.3 Formalism for Reference Dosimetry
736(4)
17.3.1 Differences between the Diagnostic and Radiotherapy Formalisms
739(1)
17.4 Quantities Entering into the Formalism
740(11)
17.4.1 Quantities for Monoenergetic Photons
743(2)
17.4.2 Quantities for Clinical X-ray Spectra
745(2)
17.4.3 Influence of Phantom Thickness and Material
747(4)
Exercises
751(2)
18 Absorbed Dose Determination for Radionuclides
753(60)
18.1 Introduction
753(2)
18.2 Radioactivity Quantities and Units
755(8)
18.2.1 Decay Constant
755(1)
18.2.2 Activity
755(1)
18.2.3 Partial Decay Constants and Activity
756(1)
18.2.4 Half-Life and Mean Life
756(1)
18.2.5 Air-Kerma Rate Constant
757(6)
18.3 Dosimetry of Unsealed Radioactive Sources
763(25)
18.3.1 The Absorbed-Dose Fraction; Isotropic Dose Kernels
764(9)
18.3.2 Dosimetry of Radioactive Disintegration Processes
773(11)
18.3.2.1 Alpha Decay
774(2)
18.3.2.2 Beta Decay
776(4)
18.3.2.3 Electron Capture Decay
780(2)
18.3.2.4 Internal Conversion versus gamma-Ray Emission
782(2)
18.3.3 Mean Energy Emitted Per Nuclear Transformation
784(2)
18.3.4 The MIRD Approach for Clinical Radionuclide Dose Estimation
786(2)
18.4 Dosimetry of Sealed Radioactive Sources
788(16)
18.4.1 Dosimetry of Point and Linear Sources
789(6)
18.4.1.1 Point Isotropic Source
792(1)
18.4.1.2 Linear Source
792(3)
18.4.2 Specification of Brachytherapy Sources
795(1)
18.4.3 Air-Kerma Rate Measurement of Brachytherapy Sources
796(2)
18.4.4 Dosimetry of Brachytherapy Sources. The AAPM TG-43 Approach
798(4)
18.4.5 Analytical Approximation for the Dose-Rate Constant
802(2)
18.5 Addendum - The Reciprocity Theorem for Unsealed Radionuclide Dosimetry
804(5)
18.5.1 Background
804(1)
18.5.2 The Reciprocity Theorem
805(4)
Exercises
809(4)
19 Neutron Dosimetry
813(28)
19.1 Introduction
813(1)
19.2 Neutron Interactions in Tissue and Tissue-Equivalent Materials
814(4)
19.3 Neutron Sources
818(3)
19.4 Principles of Mixed-Field Dosimetry
821(4)
19.5 Neutron Detectors
825(8)
19.5.1 Absolute Instruments
825(1)
19.5.2 Dosimeters with Comparable Neutron and y-Ray Sensitivities
826(1)
19.5.3 Neutron Dosimeters Insensitive to gamma Rays
827(6)
19.6 Reference Dosimetry of Neutron Radiotherapy Beams
833(5)
Exercises
838(3)
A Data Tables
841(40)
A.1 Fundamental and Derived Physical Constants
841(2)
A.2 Data of Elements
843(3)
A.3 Data for Compounds and Mixtures
846(1)
A.4 Atomic Binding Energies for Elements
846(11)
A.5 Atomic Fluorescent X-ray Mean Energies and Yields for Elements
857(6)
A.6 Interaction Data for Electrons and Positrons (Electronic Form)
863(5)
A.6.1 Electron Interaction Cross Sections
864(1)
A.6.2 Electron Stopping Powers and Related Data
865(1)
A.6.3 Restricted (delta = 10 keV) and Unrestricted Mass Electronic Stopping Powers
866(1)
A.6.4 Electron Mass Scattering Powers
867(1)
A.7 Interaction Data for Protons and Heavier Charged Particles (Electronic Form)
868(6)
A.7.1 Properties of Heavy Charged Particles
868(1)
A.7.2 Proton Stopping Powers
869(2)
A.7.3 Proton Mass Scattering Powers
871(1)
A.7.4 He - Ar Ion Stopping Powers
872(2)
A.8 Interaction Data for Photons (Electronic Form)
874(5)
A.8.1 Compton Klein - Nishina Cross Sections for Free Electrons
875(2)
A.8.2 Photon Interaction Cross Sections
877(1)
A.8.3 Photon mu/rho, mutr/rho and muen/rho Coefficients, and g Values
878(1)
A.9 Neutron Kerma Coefficients (Electronic Form)
879(2)
References
881(64)
Index
945
Fundamentals of Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry: Solutions to the Exercises
Preface
vii
1 Background and Essentials
1(4)
2 Charged Particle Interactions
5(18)
3 Uncharged Particle Interactions with Matter
23(12)
4 Field and Dosimetric Quantities and Radiation Equilibrium: Definitions and Interrelations
35(12)
5 Elementary Aspects of the Attenuation of Uncharged Particles through Matter
47(6)
6 Macroscopic Aspects of the Transport of Radiation through Matter
53(4)
Implementation
54(1)
Normalization of Results
55(2)
7 Characterization of Radiation Quality
57(12)
8 The Monte Carlo Simulation of the Transport of Radiation through Matter
69(16)
9 Cavity Theory
85(8)
10 Overview of Radiation Detectors and Measurements
93(6)
11 Primary Radiation Standards
99(10)
12 Ionization Chambers
109(8)
13 Chemical Dosimeters
117(6)
14 Solid-State Dosimeters
123(6)
15 Reference Dosimetry for External Beam Radiation Therapy
129(14)
16 Dosimetry of Small and Composite Radiotherapy Photon Beams
143(2)
17 Reference Dosimetry for Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology
145(8)
18 Absorbed-Dose Determination for Radionuclides
153(16)
19 Neutron Dosimetry
169
The four authors continuing the pioneering work of Frank Attix, Prof Pedro Andreo (Karolinska, Stockholm), Dr David T. Burns (BIPM, Paris), Prof Alan E. Nahum (University of Liverpool) and Prof Jan Seuntjens (McGill University, Montreal), are leading scientists in radiation dosimetry, having published between them more than 600 papers in the field. They have co-authored most of the existing national and international recommendations for radiotherapy dosimetry and received a number of international awards for their contributions.