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5 | (14) |
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6 | (1) |
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6 | (4) |
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6 | (1) |
|
Schematic Description of the Atomic Structure |
|
|
6 | (1) |
|
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|
6 | (1) |
|
The Peripheral Electrons/Electronic Shells |
|
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
|
Atomic Structure Interpretation according to the Wave-Mechanical Model |
|
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
|
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10 | (1) |
|
Binding Energies in Atoms and Molecules |
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10 | (3) |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
|
Energy of Particles with Mass |
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11 | (1) |
|
Binding Energies in Atoms |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
|
Electron Binding Energy and Energy Levels of the Atomic Shells |
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12 | (1) |
|
Binding Energies in Molecules |
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13 | (1) |
|
Perturbation of Binding Energies |
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13 | (4) |
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13 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
|
Equilibrium Recovery: Fluorescence |
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14 | (1) |
|
Equilibrium Recovery: Auger Effect |
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14 | (3) |
|
Examples of Atoms and Molecules of Interest for Radiation Physics |
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17 | (2) |
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19 | (16) |
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Stable Nucleus: Nuclear Energy Structure |
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20 | (2) |
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20 | (1) |
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Abundance of Stable Nuclei as a Function of the Number of Protons and Neutrons |
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21 | (1) |
|
Influence of N/Z on Stability |
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22 | (1) |
|
Nuclear Instability: Radioactivity |
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22 | (6) |
|
Definition of Radioactivity |
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22 | (1) |
|
Radioactive Transformations Associated with Strong Interactions |
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23 | (1) |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
|
Radioactive Transformations Associated with the Electrostatic Force |
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24 | (1) |
|
Nuclear Isomerism (or γ Radioactivity) |
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24 | (1) |
|
γ Emission and Internal Conversion |
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24 | (1) |
|
Radioactive Transformations Associated with the Weak Interaction |
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25 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
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25 | (1) |
|
General Aspects of β Decay |
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26 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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26 | (2) |
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Quantification of Radioactivity |
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28 | (3) |
|
Activity: Quantity and Unit |
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28 | (1) |
|
Radioactive Disintegration and Decay |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (1) |
|
Half-Life of a Radioactive Nuclide |
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29 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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Equilibrium with Radioactive Daughter Products |
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29 | (2) |
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Production of Radioactive Sources through the Activation Process |
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31 | (4) |
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Standard Production of Artificial Radionuclides |
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31 | (2) |
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33 | (2) |
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Interactions of Charged Particles with Matter |
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35 | (22) |
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36 | (1) |
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36 | (10) |
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36 | (2) |
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38 | (3) |
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41 | (1) |
|
Electron Stopping-Power Data for Substances of Medical Interest |
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42 | (1) |
|
Restricted Stopping Power |
|
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43 | (1) |
|
Collision Stopping Power for Heavy Charged Particles |
|
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44 | (2) |
|
Radiative Losses (Bremsstrahlung) |
|
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46 | (3) |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (1) |
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48 | (1) |
|
Angular Distribution of Bremsstrahlung Photons |
|
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49 | (1) |
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49 | (2) |
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49 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
|
Continuous-Slowing-Down-Approximation (CSDA) Range |
|
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51 | (1) |
|
Tabulated Stopping-Power Data |
|
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51 | (1) |
|
Elastic Nuclear Scattering |
|
|
51 | (3) |
|
Application to an Electron Depth-Dose Curve |
|
|
54 | (3) |
|
Interactions of Photons with Matter |
|
|
57 | (18) |
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58 | (1) |
|
Photon Interaction Cross-Sections |
|
|
58 | (2) |
|
Interaction Cross-Sections |
|
|
58 | (1) |
|
Differential Scattering Cross-Sections |
|
|
59 | (1) |
|
Photon Interaction Processes |
|
|
60 | (11) |
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60 | (2) |
|
Compton Interaction and Scattering Processes |
|
|
62 | (1) |
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63 | (4) |
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67 | (1) |
|
Pair and Triplet Production |
|
|
68 | (1) |
|
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|
69 | (1) |
|
The Total Atomic Cross-Section |
|
|
69 | (2) |
|
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|
71 | (3) |
|
Beam Attenuation and Attenuation Coefficients |
|
|
71 | (1) |
|
Energy Transfer and Energy Absorption Coefficients |
|
|
72 | (2) |
|
Sources of Interaction Data |
|
|
74 | (1) |
|
The Monte Carlo Simulation of Radiation Transport |
|
|
75 | (14) |
|
|
|
|
|
75 | (1) |
|
A Brief History of Monte Carlo |
|
|
76 | (1) |
|
Photon Interaction Processes |
|
|
77 | (2) |
|
Electron Interaction Processes |
|
|
79 | (3) |
|
Coupled Electron-Photon Transport |
|
|
82 | (1) |
|
Mathematical Methods of Monte Carlo |
|
|
83 | (4) |
|
|
|
84 | (1) |
|
Elementary Sampling Theory |
|
|
84 | (1) |
|
Displacements and Rotations |
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
Estimating Means and Variances |
|
|
85 | (1) |
|
|
|
85 | (2) |
|
|
|
87 | (2) |
|
Principles and Basic Concepts in Radiation Dosimetry |
|
|
89 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
|
90 | (1) |
|
The Stochastic Nature of Energy Deposition |
|
|
91 | (1) |
|
Definitions of Dosimetric Quantities |
|
|
91 | (5) |
|
|
|
91 | (2) |
|
|
|
93 | (1) |
|
|
|
94 | (1) |
|
|
|
95 | (1) |
|
|
|
95 | (1) |
|
Relations between Fluence and Dosimetric Quantities for Photons |
|
|
96 | (3) |
|
Relation between Fluence and Kerma |
|
|
96 | (2) |
|
Relation between Kerma and Absorbed Dose |
|
|
98 | (1) |
|
Charged Particle Equilibrium |
|
|
99 | (4) |
|
Relation between Fluence and Dose for Electrons |
|
|
103 | (2) |
|
|
|
103 | (1) |
|
|
|
104 | (1) |
|
|
|
105 | (12) |
|
|
|
105 | (1) |
|
Cavity Theory for Large Photon Detectors |
|
|
106 | (2) |
|
|
|
108 | (3) |
|
The Spencer-Attix Modification of Bragg-Gray Theory |
|
|
111 | (2) |
|
Departures from Perfect Bragg-Gray Behaviour in Small Cavities |
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
|
|
113 | (1) |
|
|
|
114 | (3) |
| References |
|
117 | (62) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
127 | (22) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Concept of Clonogenic Cells |
|
|
128 | (1) |
|
|
|
129 | (1) |
|
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
The Relationship between Cell Survival and Gross Tumour Response |
|
|
130 | (3) |
|
|
|
130 | (1) |
|
|
|
131 | (1) |
|
Selectivity Is the Name of the Game |
|
|
132 | (1) |
|
Why Cells Die When They Are Irradiated |
|
|
133 | (1) |
|
Cellular Recovery from Radiation Damage |
|
|
133 | (1) |
|
Variation of Cell Killing through the Cell Cycle |
|
|
134 | (1) |
|
|
|
135 | (1) |
|
|
|
135 | (1) |
|
|
|
136 | (3) |
|
|
|
138 | (1) |
|
|
|
138 | (1) |
|
Tumour Control Probability |
|
|
139 | (1) |
|
Experimental Tumour Systems |
|
|
140 | (1) |
|
The Radiosensitivity of Human Tumour Cells |
|
|
141 | (4) |
|
The Initial Slope of the Cell-Survival Curve |
|
|
141 | (1) |
|
Cell-Survival Curves for Human Tumour Cells |
|
|
142 | (1) |
|
Departures from the LQ Model for Doses below 1 Gy |
|
|
143 | (2) |
|
The Effect of Different Radiation Qualities or LET |
|
|
145 | (4) |
|
Radiobiology of Normal Tissues |
|
|
149 | (14) |
|
|
|
Normal-Tissue Reactions to Radiotherapy |
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
What Determines the Severity of Normal-Tissue Damage? |
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
|
|
150 | (1) |
|
The Proliferative Structure of Tissues |
|
|
151 | (1) |
|
Early-and Late-Responding Tissues |
|
|
152 | (1) |
|
|
|
152 | (1) |
|
|
|
152 | (1) |
|
Concepts of Normal-Tissue Tolerance and Therapeutic Gain |
|
|
152 | (2) |
|
Steepness of Dose-Response Curves |
|
|
154 | (2) |
|
Basic Properties of Dose-Response Curves |
|
|
154 | (1) |
|
What Determines the Steepness of Dose-Response Curves? |
|
|
155 | (1) |
|
|
|
156 | (2) |
|
|
|
156 | (1) |
|
|
|
156 | (1) |
|
|
|
157 | (1) |
|
|
|
157 | (1) |
|
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
Quantification of Normal-Tissue Damage |
|
|
158 | (2) |
|
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
Assays of Tissue Function |
|
|
158 | (1) |
|
Stem-Cell Cloning Techniques |
|
|
159 | (1) |
|
|
|
160 | (3) |
|
|
|
160 | (1) |
|
Basis of the Volume Effect |
|
|
161 | (2) |
|
Dose Fractionation in Radiotherapy |
|
|
163 | (16) |
|
|
|
|
|
Why We Fractionate in Radiotherapy |
|
|
164 | (1) |
|
Historical Approaches to Fractionation |
|
|
164 | (2) |
|
The Approaches of Strandqvist and Ellis |
|
|
164 | (1) |
|
The Contribution of Experimental Radiobiology |
|
|
165 | (1) |
|
The Fractionation Response of Early- and Late-Responding Tissues |
|
|
166 | (5) |
|
The Linear-Quadratic Approach to Fractionation |
|
|
167 | (1) |
|
Rationale of the LQ Approach |
|
|
168 | (2) |
|
|
|
170 | (1) |
|
Effect of Overall Treatment Time |
|
|
171 | (1) |
|
Hyperfractionation and Accelerated Fractionation |
|
|
172 | (2) |
|
|
|
172 | (1) |
|
Accelerated Fractionation |
|
|
173 | (1) |
|
What Interfraction Interval for Multiple Fractions per Day? |
|
|
174 | (1) |
|
How to Respond to Gaps in Treatment |
|
|
174 | (1) |
|
Low Dose Rate: Rationale for Brachytherapy |
|
|
174 | (5) |
| References |
|
179 | (92) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
187 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
188 | (1) |
|
Principles of X-Ray Generation |
|
|
188 | (2) |
|
|
|
188 | (1) |
|
|
|
189 | (1) |
|
Practical X-Ray Generators |
|
|
190 | (2) |
|
|
|
190 | (1) |
|
Metal-Ceramic Tube Design |
|
|
191 | (1) |
|
|
|
191 | (1) |
|
Target Angle and Radiation Distribution in Air |
|
|
191 | (1) |
|
|
|
191 | (1) |
|
|
|
191 | (1) |
|
HT Generator and Rectification |
|
|
192 | (1) |
|
|
|
192 | (1) |
|
|
|
192 | (1) |
|
System Control Unit and User Interface |
|
|
192 | (1) |
|
|
|
193 | (1) |
|
|
|
193 | (1) |
|
|
|
194 | (1) |
|
|
|
194 | (1) |
|
|
|
194 | (1) |
|
Beam Collimation and Applicators |
|
|
194 | (3) |
|
|
|
195 | (1) |
|
|
|
195 | (2) |
|
|
|
197 | (44) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
198 | (1) |
|
Principles of Linear Accelerators |
|
|
199 | (1) |
|
|
|
200 | (15) |
|
The Microwave Power Source |
|
|
200 | (1) |
|
|
|
200 | (1) |
|
|
|
201 | (2) |
|
High Voltage Pulsed Power Supply or Modulator |
|
|
203 | (1) |
|
The Accelerating Waveguide |
|
|
204 | (1) |
|
TW or Travelling Waveguides |
|
|
204 | (1) |
|
SW or Standing Waveguides |
|
|
205 | (1) |
|
Comparison of Travelling and Standing Waveguides |
|
|
206 | (1) |
|
|
|
207 | (3) |
|
Beam Steering and Focusing |
|
|
210 | (1) |
|
|
|
211 | (1) |
|
|
|
212 | (1) |
|
A 270deg; Magnet Using Hyperbolic Pole Faces |
|
|
212 | (1) |
|
A 270deg; Magnet with Locally Tilted Pole Pieces |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
A 270deg; Three Sector System |
|
|
213 | (1) |
|
A 112.5deg; Double Focusing (Slalom Bend) System |
|
|
214 | (1) |
|
|
|
215 | (12) |
|
|
|
215 | (1) |
|
|
|
215 | (1) |
|
|
|
215 | (1) |
|
Visual Beam Position Indication |
|
|
216 | (1) |
|
Collimation of Rectangular Fields |
|
|
216 | (2) |
|
|
|
218 | (1) |
|
Design Features and Relationship to Performance |
|
|
219 | (4) |
|
Mini and Micro Multileaf Collimators |
|
|
223 | (2) |
|
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
Mechanical Fixed or Motorized Wedge Filters |
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
|
|
225 | (1) |
|
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
|
|
226 | (1) |
|
|
|
227 | (1) |
|
|
|
227 | (4) |
|
Drive Stand Gantry Support |
|
|
227 | (1) |
|
|
|
228 | (1) |
|
|
|
229 | (1) |
|
Isocentre Distance, Isocentre Clearance and Isocentre Height |
|
|
230 | (1) |
|
Standard Coordinate Systems |
|
|
231 | (1) |
|
|
|
231 | (3) |
|
|
|
231 | (2) |
|
|
|
233 | (1) |
|
Circulating Water Supplies |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
The Linac Control Systems |
|
|
234 | (7) |
|
Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
Energy Selection and Control |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
Magnetron Driven Travelling Wave Systems |
|
|
234 | (1) |
|
Klystron Driven Standing Wave Systems |
|
|
235 | (1) |
|
|
|
235 | (1) |
|
Control of Total Dose, Dose Rate, Beam Position and Uniformity |
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
|
|
237 | (1) |
|
Beam Uniformity and Beam Position Monitoring |
|
|
238 | (1) |
|
|
|
239 | (2) |
|
|
|
241 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
241 | (1) |
|
Basic Construction and Features |
|
|
242 | (3) |
|
|
|
242 | (1) |
|
|
|
243 | (1) |
|
|
|
244 | (1) |
|
|
|
244 | (1) |
|
|
|
245 | (2) |
|
|
|
245 | (1) |
|
|
|
246 | (1) |
|
|
|
246 | (1) |
|
|
|
246 | (1) |
|
|
|
247 | (1) |
|
Installation of Cobalt Sources |
|
|
247 | (4) |
|
|
|
247 | (1) |
|
|
|
248 | (1) |
|
|
|
248 | (1) |
|
|
|
249 | (2) |
|
|
|
251 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
251 | (2) |
|
Description of the Standard Simulator |
|
|
253 | (2) |
|
|
|
253 | (1) |
|
|
|
253 | (1) |
|
|
|
254 | (1) |
|
|
|
254 | (1) |
|
|
|
255 | (1) |
|
|
|
255 | (1) |
|
|
|
255 | (6) |
|
Computerized Control, Networking and Auto Setup |
|
|
256 | (1) |
|
|
|
256 | (1) |
|
|
|
256 | (2) |
|
Virtual Simulation and Image Guided Radiotherapy |
|
|
258 | (3) |
|
|
|
261 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
261 | (1) |
|
|
|
262 | (1) |
|
Electronic Portal Imaging Devices |
|
|
263 | (8) |
|
Fluorescent-Screen-Based Systems |
|
|
264 | (2) |
|
|
|
266 | (1) |
|
The Matrix Ionisation Chamber |
|
|
266 | (1) |
|
Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Devices |
|
|
267 | (1) |
|
|
|
268 | (3) |
| References |
|
271 | (144) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
279 | (24) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
280 | (2) |
|
Physical and Operational Principles |
|
|
282 | (4) |
|
Influence of the Applied Voltage---The Ionisation Region |
|
|
282 | (1) |
|
Insulators and Guard Rings |
|
|
283 | (1) |
|
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
|
|
285 | (1) |
|
|
|
286 | (10) |
|
|
|
287 | (1) |
|
|
|
288 | (1) |
|
Dosimetric Requirements for Cavity Chambers |
|
|
289 | (2) |
|
|
|
291 | (1) |
|
|
|
292 | (4) |
|
Monitoring Ionisation Chambers |
|
|
296 | (1) |
|
Determination of the Charge Produced |
|
|
296 | (7) |
|
|
|
296 | (1) |
|
Initial and General Recombination |
|
|
296 | (1) |
|
Collection Efficiency: Boag's Theory |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
Collection Efficiency: The Two-Voltage Method |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
Correction for the Changes in the Mass of Air within the Cavity |
|
|
301 | (2) |
|
Radiothermoluminescent Dosimeters and Diodes |
|
|
303 | (18) |
|
|
|
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
Thermoluminescent Dosimetry |
|
|
305 | (9) |
|
Principles of TL Dosimetry |
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
|
|
306 | (4) |
|
Dosimetric Properties and Influence Factors |
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
|
|
310 | (1) |
|
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
|
|
311 | (1) |
|
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
|
|
312 | (1) |
|
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
|
|
314 | (6) |
|
Principles of Diode Dosimetry |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
|
|
315 | (2) |
|
Dosimetric Properties and Influence Factors |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
Repeatability and Reproducibility |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
|
|
318 | (1) |
|
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
|
|
319 | (1) |
|
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
Radiation Sensitive Films and Gels |
|
|
321 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
|
|
322 | (6) |
|
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
Film Blackening and Optical Density |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
Characteristic Film Curves |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
Measuring a Dose Distribution with Film |
|
|
325 | (1) |
|
|
|
326 | (1) |
|
Practical Considerations When Using Film as a Dosimeter |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
|
|
328 | (5) |
|
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
Chemical Yield and the G Value |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
|
|
329 | (2) |
|
Comparison of Fricke with PAG Gels |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
Practical Considerations when Using Radiation-Sensitive. Gels as a Dosimeter |
|
|
331 | (2) |
|
Absolute Dose Determination under Reference Conditions |
|
|
333 | (34) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
Codes of Practice Based on Air-Kerma Calibration |
|
|
335 | (4) |
|
|
|
335 | (1) |
|
From Air Kerma to the NK Factor |
|
|
336 | (1) |
|
From the Nk to the Nd, air Factor |
|
|
336 | (2) |
|
Using the ND, air Factor to Derive the Absorbed Dose to Water |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
Codes of Practice Based on Absorbed Dose to Water Calibrations |
|
|
339 | (6) |
|
|
|
339 | (2) |
|
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
Correction for the Radiation Quality of the Beam, kQ, Qa |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
A Modified kQ, Qa for Electron Beams |
|
|
342 | (1) |
|
ND, W and KQ, Qo Options Available in Practice |
|
|
343 | (2) |
|
Inter-Relationship between Nk,-ND, air andair,- Codes of Practice |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
Quantities Common to Both Approaches |
|
|
346 | (6) |
|
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
Stopping-Power Ratios for Electron Beams |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
Stopping-Power Ratios for Photon Beams |
|
|
347 | (2) |
|
Mass Energy Absorption Coefficient Ratios |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
Perturbation Correction Factors |
|
|
349 | (2) |
|
Mean Energy Expended in Air per Ion Formed, (Wair/e) |
|
|
351 | (1) |
|
Beam Quality Specification |
|
|
351 | (1) |
|
|
|
352 | (7) |
|
|
|
352 | (1) |
|
|
|
353 | (1) |
|
Background to Air-Kerma Based Codes of Practice |
|
|
354 | (1) |
|
The Backscatter Method (Low Energies) |
|
|
354 | (2) |
|
The In-Phantom Method (Medium Energies) |
|
|
356 | (1) |
|
|
|
357 | (2) |
|
Absorbed Dose to Water Calibration |
|
|
359 | (1) |
|
Protons and Heavy Charged Particles |
|
|
359 | (2) |
|
Phantoms for Dose Determination in Reference Conditions |
|
|
361 | (4) |
|
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
Megavoltage X-Ray and 60Co y-Ray Beams |
|
|
362 | (1) |
|
|
|
362 | (2) |
|
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
Protons and Heavy Charged Particles |
|
|
365 | (1) |
|
Summary and Expected Future Developments |
|
|
365 | (2) |
|
Relative Dose Measurements and Commissioning |
|
|
367 | (18) |
|
|
|
|
|
368 | (7) |
|
Rationale for Absolute and Relative Dose Measurements |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
Pre-Measurement Preparation |
|
|
368 | (2) |
|
|
|
370 | (2) |
|
|
|
372 | (3) |
|
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
|
|
375 | (7) |
|
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
|
|
376 | (1) |
|
|
|
377 | (1) |
|
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
Secondary Blocking and Attenuators |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
Asymmetric Independent Jaws |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
Other Dynamic Treatment Modalities |
|
|
381 | (1) |
|
|
|
382 | (3) |
|
Virtual Source Position and Angular Spread |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
Relative Depth Doses and Off-Axis Profiles |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
|
|
383 | (2) |
|
Appendix D Supplementary Details on Codes of Practice for Absolute Dose Determination |
|
|
385 | (30) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
386 | (6) |
|
|
|
386 | (2) |
|
Stopping-Power Ratios for Electron Beams |
|
|
388 | (2) |
|
Stopping-Power Ratios for Photon Beams |
|
|
390 | (2) |
|
|
|
392 | (9) |
|
The Displacement Effect (Peff or Pdis) |
|
|
392 | (2) |
|
The Effect of the Chamber Wall (Pwall) |
|
|
394 | (3) |
|
The Effect of the Central Electrode (Pccl) |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
The Electron Fluence (In-)Scattering Effect (Pcav) |
|
|
398 | (2) |
|
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Beam-Quality Specification |
|
|
401 | (6) |
|
Photon Beam Quality Specifiers |
|
|
401 | (3) |
|
Electron-Beam Quality Specifiers |
|
|
404 | (3) |
|
Humidity Corrections for Ionisation Chambers |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
Uncertainties in Reference Dosimetry |
|
|
408 | (7) |
|
Air-Kerma Based Formalism |
|
|
410 | (2) |
|
Absorbed-Dose-to-Water Formalism |
|
|
412 | (3) |
| References |
|
415 | (124) |
|
|
|
|
From Measurements to Calculations |
|
|
433 | (6) |
|
|
|
|
|
433 | (2) |
|
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
Relative Dose Distributions |
|
|
435 | (3) |
|
Variation of Dose with Distance from the Source |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
Variation of Dose with Depth within the Patient |
|
|
436 | (1) |
|
Effect of Field Size and Shape |
|
|
437 | (1) |
|
Effect of Distance from the Central Axis |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
Composition of Patient Tissue |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
Representation of Dose Distributions: Isodose Curves and Surfaces |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
|
|
439 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
439 | (1) |
|
|
|
440 | (4) |
|
Energy Spectrum and Role of Filtration |
|
|
440 | (1) |
|
|
|
440 | (4) |
|
Depth Dose Characteristics |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
Dose Calculations for Kilovoltage X-Rays |
|
|
447 | (4) |
|
|
|
447 | (1) |
|
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
Example of Monitor Units (or Treatment Time) Calculation |
|
|
449 | (2) |
|
|
|
451 | (32) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
|
|
452 | (2) |
|
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
|
|
452 | (2) |
|
Characteristics of Photon Beams |
|
|
454 | (7) |
|
|
|
454 | (2) |
|
Variation of Dose with Depth |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
Effect of Source Skin Distance |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Off-Axis Dose Distribution |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
Influence of Patient Shape and Composition |
|
|
461 | (4) |
|
Effect of Oblique Incidence |
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
|
|
463 | (2) |
|
|
|
465 | (6) |
|
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
Requirements for Enhanced Beam Shaping |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
Standard Multileaf Collimators |
|
|
468 | (2) |
|
Mini and Micro Multileaf Collimators |
|
|
470 | (1) |
|
Beam Modulation Techniques |
|
|
471 | (12) |
|
Mechanical Fixed or Motorised Wedge Filters |
|
|
471 | (3) |
|
Design of Mechanical Wedge Filters |
|
|
474 | (2) |
|
Dosimetry Considerations for Wedge Filters |
|
|
476 | (1) |
|
|
|
477 | (1) |
|
|
|
478 | (2) |
|
Intensity Modulation with the MLC |
|
|
480 | (3) |
|
Manual Dose Calculations in Photon Beams |
|
|
483 | (36) |
|
|
|
|
|
484 | (1) |
|
Parameters for Dose Calculations |
|
|
484 | (18) |
|
|
|
484 | (1) |
|
|
|
484 | (2) |
|
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
Zero Field Tissue Air Ratio (TAR0) |
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
Tissue Phantom Ratio TPR (Tissue Maximum Ratio TMR) |
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
Zero Field Tissue Maximum Ratio (TMR0) |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
|
|
489 | (2) |
|
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
Phantom Scatter Factor Sp |
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
Normalised Peak Scatter Factor |
|
|
492 | (1) |
|
Collimator or Head Scatter Factor Sc |
|
|
492 | (2) |
|
Collimator Exchange Effect |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
Wedge Transmission Factor |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
|
|
495 | (2) |
|
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
Relationships and Derivations |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
|
|
499 | (1) |
|
PDD from One SSD to Another (TAR Method) |
|
|
499 | (2) |
|
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
Phantom Scatter Factor Sp from TAR |
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
Monitor Unit Calculations |
|
|
502 | (17) |
|
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
Standard SSD Calibration at dmax |
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
|
|
503 | (1) |
|
Relationships with the Recommended Protocols for Absolute Dose Determination |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
Calculations for Rectangular Fields at the Standard Distance |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
|
|
504 | (5) |
|
|
|
509 | (4) |
|
Calculations for Modified Beams |
|
|
513 | (1) |
|
|
|
513 | (1) |
|
|
|
513 | (1) |
|
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
Asymmetric Fields and Off-Axis Calculation Points |
|
|
514 | (2) |
|
Corrections for Inhomogeneities |
|
|
516 | (3) |
|
|
|
519 | (20) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
520 | (1) |
|
Depth-Dose Characteristics of Electron Beams |
|
|
521 | (6) |
|
Spectrum at the Patient Surface |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
General Shape of Depth-Dose Curve |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
Variation with Beam Energy |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Variation with Field Size |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Variation with Field Shape |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
Variation with Source Skin Distance (SSD) |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
Variation with Oblique Incidence |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
|
|
527 | (5) |
|
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
Electron Beam Flatness and Symmetry |
|
|
528 | (2) |
|
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
Variation of Isodoses with Field Size |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
Variation of Isodoses with SSD |
|
|
530 | (2) |
|
Variation of Isodoses with Oblique Incidence |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
|
|
532 | (2) |
|
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
Internal Shielding/Backscattered Electrons |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
|
|
534 | (1) |
|
|
|
534 | (3) |
|
Output Factors and Monitor Unit Calculations |
|
|
537 | (2) |
| References |
|
539 | (82) |
|
Part F: Patient Dose Computation Methods |
|
|
|
Principles of Patient Dose Computation |
|
|
549 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
549 | (2) |
|
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
Coordinate Systems and Geometrical Issues |
|
|
551 | (3) |
|
Absolute and Relative Dose |
|
|
554 | (2) |
|
|
|
556 | (3) |
|
Patient Dose Computation for Photon Beams |
|
|
559 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
560 | (1) |
|
Broad-Beam (Empirical) Methods |
|
|
561 | (7) |
|
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
Tabulated Beam Data Representations |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
Analytical Beam Representations |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
Improvement of Off-Axis Calculations and Corrections for Wedge Filters |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
Correction for Patient Shape and Inhomogeneities |
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
|
|
563 | (1) |
|
|
|
564 | (3) |
|
Limitations and Drawbacks of Broad-Beam Methods |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
|
|
568 | (17) |
|
The Superposition Principle |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
Primary-Scatter Separation |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
|
|
569 | (2) |
|
Application to Cobalt-60 and Medium-Energy X-Ray Beams |
|
|
571 | (2) |
|
Extension to Higher Energies |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Determination of ΨE, the Entrance Primary Energy Fluence |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Determination of KPB, the Pencil-Beam Kernels |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
Some Practical Implementations |
|
|
576 | (2) |
|
Inhomogeneities and Other Limitations |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Point Kernel Convolution/Superposition |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Determination of the Energy Fluence and Terma |
|
|
579 | (1) |
|
Determination of the Energy Deposition Point Kernels, K |
|
|
579 | (3) |
|
Beam Divergence and Tilting of the Kernels |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
Kernel Scaling according to Tissue Density and Tissue Inhomogeneities |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
|
|
583 | (2) |
|
|
|
585 | (2) |
|
Patient Dose Computation for Electron Beams |
|
|
587 | (16) |
|
|
|
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
The Fermi-Eyges Pencil-Beam Algorithm Implementation (Hogstrom Model) |
|
|
589 | (8) |
|
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
Theory of the Fermi-Eyges Pencil-Beam Model |
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
Adaptation of Fermi-Eyges Theory to the Treatment Situation |
|
|
592 | (1) |
|
Incorporation of Measured Depth-Dose Curves |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
The Fair Weighting Factor |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
The Final Expression for the Elementary Pencil |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
Practical Implementation for an Inhomogeneous Patient |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
Measured Depth-Dose Distributions |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
Mean Energy at the Surface, E0 |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
The Initial Angular Spread, σθx |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
The Penumbra Adjustment Factor, FMCS |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
Limitations of the Fermi-Eyges Pencil-Beam Model |
|
|
597 | (2) |
|
Experimental Tests of Accuracy of Electron-Beam Treatment Planning Systems |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
Other Electron-Beam Algorithms |
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
|
|
601 | (2) |
|
Monte-Carlo Based Patient Dose Computation |
|
|
603 | (18) |
|
|
|
|
|
603 | (4) |
|
Choice of Available Monte-Carlo Codes |
|
|
607 | (2) |
|
Treatment-Machine Simulation |
|
|
609 | (3) |
|
Monte-Carlo Simulation of the Dose Distribution in the Patient |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
Monte-Carlo Treatment Planning Implementations |
|
|
613 | (2) |
|
Special Features of Monte-Carlo Based Treatment Planning |
|
|
615 | (3) |
|
Absolute Dose per Monitor Unit |
|
|
615 | (2) |
|
Dose to Medium or Dose to Water? |
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
Computer Hardware Considerations |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (3) |
| References |
|
621 | (152) |
|
Part G: Treatment Planning |
|
|
|
|
|
637 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements Volumes |
|
|
638 | (3) |
|
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
Clinical Issues in Target Definition |
|
|
641 | (3) |
|
Poor Organ/Tumour Definition |
|
|
641 | (1) |
|
|
|
642 | (1) |
|
|
|
643 | (1) |
|
ICRU 62 Additions to ICRU 50 |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
Conclusions and Future Trends |
|
|
645 | (2) |
|
|
|
647 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
Patient Positioning and Immobilisation |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
Imaging for Treatment Planning |
|
|
649 | (6) |
|
|
|
649 | (3) |
|
Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
Positron Emission Tomography |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
|
|
654 | (1) |
|
|
|
655 | (2) |
|
Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Treatment Planning |
|
|
657 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
|
|
658 | (1) |
|
Rationale for the Use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Treatment Planning |
|
|
659 | (1) |
|
Problems with the Use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Treatment Planning |
|
|
660 | (4) |
|
Electron Density Information |
|
|
660 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
Magnetic Resonance Image Distortion |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
System-Related Distortions |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
Object-Induced Distortions |
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
Magnetic Resonance Correction of Image Distortion |
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
Other Considerations Affecting Utilisation of Magnetic Resonance Imaging for Treatment Planning |
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
Methods to Allow the Use of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Treatment Planning |
|
|
665 | (2) |
|
|
|
665 | (1) |
|
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Clinical Sites of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Applications in Treatment Planning |
|
|
667 | (1) |
|
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
Beam Definition---Virtual Simulation |
|
|
669 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
Beam Definition Using Anatomical Set-Up |
|
|
670 | (2) |
|
Direct Simulation of the Beam Arrangement |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
Specific Examples of Anatomical Set-Up |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
Parallel Opposed Simple Fields |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Computer-Based Beam Definition---The Traditional Approach |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Computer-Based Beam Definition---Virtual Simulation |
|
|
673 | (8) |
|
Principle of Virtual Simulation |
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
Fitting MLC Leaves in Beam's-Eye-Views |
|
|
675 | (1) |
|
Digitally Reconstructed Radiographs |
|
|
676 | (5) |
|
Photon-Beam Treatment Planning Techniques |
|
|
681 | (20) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (2) |
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (2) |
|
|
|
684 | (3) |
|
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
|
685 | (1) |
|
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
Photon and Electron Beams |
|
|
687 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (3) |
|
|
|
687 | (2) |
|
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
Arrangements with More than Four Beams |
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
Treatments in Inclined Planes |
|
|
691 | (1) |
|
Fixed Source Surface Distance Beams vs. Isocentric Treatments |
|
|
692 | (2) |
|
|
|
694 | (1) |
|
|
|
695 | (6) |
|
Abutting Fields with Parallel Axes |
|
|
695 | (2) |
|
Matching Single Fields to Parallel Opposed Pairs |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
Marching Adjacent Beams in Inclined Planes |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
Matching Electron to Photon Fields |
|
|
698 | (3) |
|
Electron-Beam Treatment Planning Techniques |
|
|
701 | (18) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
702 | (1) |
|
Checklist for Electron Treatment Planning |
|
|
702 | (1) |
|
Field Size and Coverage of the Target Volume |
|
|
703 | (1) |
|
Examples of Electron Planning |
|
|
704 | (7) |
|
Example A: Single-Electron Field with No Complications |
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
Example B: Use of Internal Shielding |
|
|
705 | (3) |
|
Example C: Single-Electron Field with Surface Inhomogeneities |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
Example D: Single-Electron Field with Obliquity |
|
|
709 | (2) |
|
|
|
711 | (4) |
|
|
|
715 | (2) |
|
Inhomogeneities and Electron Planning Algorithms |
|
|
717 | (1) |
|
|
|
718 | (1) |
|
Current and Future Developments |
|
|
718 | (1) |
|
Dose Evaluation of Treatment Plans |
|
|
719 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
|
|
720 | (2) |
|
|
|
722 | (5) |
|
Definition and Application of Dose Volume Histogram |
|
|
722 | (2) |
|
Methods for Dose Volume Histogram Calculation |
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
Dose Binning and Graphical Representation |
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
Boolean Operations on Structures for Dose Volume Histogram Calculations |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
Clinical Use and Limitations of Dose Volume Histograms |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
Dose Statistics and Plan Scoring |
|
|
727 | (4) |
|
Doses at Reference Points and Data Derived from Dose Volume Histograms |
|
|
727 | (1) |
|
Conformity Index and Figures of Merit |
|
|
728 | (3) |
|
Biological Evaluation of Treatment Plans |
|
|
731 | (42) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
732 | (1) |
|
Tumour Control Probability |
|
|
733 | (14) |
|
A Radiobiologically-Based TCP Model |
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
A Model for TCP Based on Poisson Statistics |
|
|
733 | (3) |
|
Consistency with Clinical Data |
|
|
736 | (2) |
|
Inhomogeneous Dose Distributions |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
The Effect of Dose Nonuniformity on TCP |
|
|
739 | (2) |
|
Variation in Clonogenic Cell Density |
|
|
741 | (1) |
|
Applying the TCP Model to Patient Data |
|
|
742 | (2) |
|
The Effect of Hypoxia on Local Control: A Case Study |
|
|
744 | (1) |
|
|
|
745 | (2) |
|
Normal Tissue Complication Probability |
|
|
747 | (26) |
|
|
|
747 | (1) |
|
Lyman-Kutcher-Burman (L-K-B) Empirical Model |
|
|
748 | (1) |
|
|
|
748 | (2) |
|
Inhomogeneous Irradiation |
|
|
750 | (3) |
|
Organ Architecture Models |
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
The Relative Seriality Model |
|
|
755 | (2) |
|
Relationships between L-K, B, Serial and Parallel Models |
|
|
757 | (1) |
|
The Effect of Fraction Size |
|
|
758 | (1) |
|
Relationship of Models to Clinical Complications |
|
|
759 | (1) |
|
|
|
759 | (3) |
|
Radiation Hepatitis (Radiation Induced Liver Disease) |
|
|
762 | (4) |
|
|
|
766 | (3) |
|
|
|
769 | (4) |
| References |
|
773 | (148) |
|
Part H: Quality Assurance |
|
|
|
Rationale and Management of the Quality System |
|
|
793 | (16) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
794 | (1) |
|
Requirements of a Quality System |
|
|
794 | (2) |
|
Quality-Control Procedures |
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
Basis for Tolerance Limits |
|
|
796 | (5) |
|
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
Dose Effect Relationships and Accuracy |
|
|
797 | (1) |
|
Required Accuracy in Absorbed Dose Delivery |
|
|
798 | (1) |
|
Required Accuracy in Absorbed Dose Distributions |
|
|
799 | (1) |
|
Required Geometric Accuracy in Radiotherapy |
|
|
799 | (1) |
|
Overall Accuracy Requirements |
|
|
800 | (1) |
|
Accuracy Currently Achievable |
|
|
801 | (2) |
|
|
|
801 | (1) |
|
Estimation of Achievable Uncertainties |
|
|
801 | (2) |
|
ICRU Dose Specification and Reporting |
|
|
803 | (2) |
|
|
|
805 | (1) |
|
Equipment Quality Assurance |
|
|
806 | (3) |
|
Equipment Used in External Beam Radiotherapy |
|
|
806 | (1) |
|
Steps in Equipment Quality Assurance |
|
|
807 | (2) |
|
Quality Control of Megavoltage Equipment |
|
|
809 | (32) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
810 | (2) |
|
Quality Control of Linear Accelerators and Cobalt Machines |
|
|
810 | (2) |
|
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
Isocentric Treatment Machines |
|
|
812 | (10) |
|
Mechanical Alignment of Isocentric Machines |
|
|
814 | (1) |
|
|
|
814 | (1) |
|
Definitive Mechanical Isocentre Assessment |
|
|
815 | (1) |
|
Isocentric Couch Rotation Axis |
|
|
816 | (1) |
|
Establishment of Vertical Axis |
|
|
816 | (1) |
|
Considerations Relating to the Mechanical Isocentre |
|
|
817 | (1) |
|
|
|
817 | (1) |
|
|
|
817 | (1) |
|
Radiation and Light Field Coincidence |
|
|
818 | (1) |
|
Considerations Relating to Radiation Alignment of the Beam |
|
|
819 | (1) |
|
Interpretation of Alignment Checks |
|
|
820 | (2) |
|
Alignment and Quality Control of Multileaf Collimators |
|
|
822 | (2) |
|
|
|
823 | (1) |
|
Alignment of the MLC to the Treatment Machine Axes |
|
|
823 | (1) |
|
|
|
823 | (1) |
|
|
|
824 | (1) |
|
Variation with Gantry Angle |
|
|
824 | (1) |
|
Flatness and Symmetry of Photon Beams |
|
|
824 | (2) |
|
Considerations Relating to Beam Flatness and Symmetry |
|
|
826 | (1) |
|
|
|
826 | (1) |
|
Considerations Relating to Beam Energy |
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
Quality Control of Electron Beams |
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
Electron Flatness and Symmetry |
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
Quality-Control Energy Check |
|
|
828 | (1) |
|
|
|
828 | (1) |
|
The Measurement of Percentage Depth Dose |
|
|
828 | (1) |
|
|
|
829 | (4) |
|
Strategies for Quality Control of Treatment Unit Calibration |
|
|
829 | (1) |
|
|
|
830 | (1) |
|
|
|
830 | (1) |
|
|
|
831 | (1) |
|
|
|
831 | (1) |
|
Use of Ionisation Chambers for Output Calibration |
|
|
831 | (1) |
|
Practical Issues in Photon Calibrations |
|
|
832 | (1) |
|
Calibration of Units Controlled by a Timer |
|
|
832 | (1) |
|
|
|
833 | (1) |
|
|
|
833 | (2) |
|
|
|
833 | (1) |
|
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters |
|
|
834 | (1) |
|
|
|
834 | (1) |
|
Phantoms and Phantom Materials |
|
|
835 | (1) |
|
|
|
836 | (5) |
|
|
|
836 | (1) |
|
Subjective Image Analysis |
|
|
836 | (1) |
|
|
|
836 | (2) |
|
|
|
838 | (1) |
|
Quality Control of Image Dam |
|
|
839 | (2) |
|
Quality Assurance of the Treatment Planning Process |
|
|
841 | (26) |
|
|
|
The Treatment Planning Process |
|
|
842 | (1) |
|
Definition of Treatment Planning |
|
|
842 | (1) |
|
Data Exchange in Radiotherapy |
|
|
842 | (1) |
|
Quality Assurance in Treatment Planning |
|
|
843 | (1) |
|
Patient Positioning and Acquisition of Anatomical Data |
|
|
843 | (3) |
|
Quality Assurance of Equipment Used for Patient Data Acquisition |
|
|
844 | (1) |
|
Procedures for Patient Data Acquisition |
|
|
845 | (1) |
|
Treatment Planning System |
|
|
846 | (21) |
|
Components and Functions of a Treatment Planning System |
|
|
846 | (1) |
|
|
|
846 | (1) |
|
|
|
846 | (1) |
|
|
|
847 | (1) |
|
|
|
847 | (1) |
|
|
|
848 | (1) |
|
|
|
848 | (1) |
|
Specification and Purchase Process |
|
|
849 | (1) |
|
Acceptance of the Treatment Planning System |
|
|
850 | (1) |
|
Objectives of Treatment Planning System Commissioning |
|
|
850 | (1) |
|
Aim of Commissioning and Risk Analysis |
|
|
850 | (1) |
|
|
|
851 | (2) |
|
Tolerance Specification in Non-Uniform Dose Distributions |
|
|
853 | (1) |
|
Geometric Aspects of Treatment Planning System Commissioning |
|
|
853 | (1) |
|
|
|
854 | (2) |
|
|
|
856 | (1) |
|
Beam Definition and Representation |
|
|
856 | (2) |
|
Transfer of Beam Data to Simulator or Treatment Machine |
|
|
858 | (1) |
|
Dosimetric Aspects of Treatment Planning System Commissioning |
|
|
858 | (1) |
|
Qualitative Check of Dose Computation Features |
|
|
858 | (1) |
|
Basic Beam Data and the Construction of the Beam Data Library |
|
|
858 | (1) |
|
Quantitative Checks for Simple Situations Using Reference Data |
|
|
859 | (1) |
|
Quantitative Checks for Complex Situations |
|
|
860 | (3) |
|
|
|
863 | (1) |
|
Periodic Checks of the Treatment Planning System |
|
|
863 | (1) |
|
Regular Quality Control Checks |
|
|
863 | (1) |
|
After Changes to the Beam Data Library |
|
|
864 | (1) |
|
After a New Software Release |
|
|
864 | (1) |
|
|
|
864 | (1) |
|
|
|
864 | (1) |
|
|
|
865 | (1) |
|
Clinical Verification of IMRT Treatments |
|
|
865 | (2) |
|
Quality Control of Treatment Delivery |
|
|
867 | (30) |
|
|
|
|
|
Electronic Portal Imaging Devices |
|
|
868 | (14) |
|
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
|
|
869 | (1) |
|
|
|
869 | (1) |
|
|
|
870 | (1) |
|
Image Comparison Techniques |
|
|
870 | (1) |
|
|
|
871 | (1) |
|
|
|
872 | (1) |
|
|
|
872 | (1) |
|
Segmentation and Matching of Anatomy |
|
|
872 | (2) |
|
Measurement of Setup Errors |
|
|
874 | (1) |
|
Accuracy of Analysis Techniques |
|
|
874 | (1) |
|
Visual Inspection of Images |
|
|
875 | (1) |
|
Interpretation of Position Measurements |
|
|
875 | (1) |
|
Intervention in Treatment Delivery |
|
|
876 | (1) |
|
|
|
877 | (1) |
|
|
|
877 | (1) |
|
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
|
|
879 | (1) |
|
|
|
879 | (1) |
|
|
|
880 | (1) |
|
|
|
881 | (1) |
|
|
|
882 | (1) |
|
|
|
882 | (15) |
|
|
|
882 | (1) |
|
Choice of Detectors and Action Levels |
|
|
882 | (3) |
|
|
|
885 | (1) |
|
|
|
885 | (1) |
|
Entrance Dose Measurements |
|
|
885 | (2) |
|
|
|
887 | (1) |
|
Target and Midplane Doses |
|
|
887 | (1) |
|
Intracavitary Dose Measurements |
|
|
888 | (1) |
|
|
|
889 | (1) |
|
Patient Dose Verification in External Beam Therapy |
|
|
889 | (2) |
|
Dose to Organs at Risks Close to or Outside the Irradiation Field |
|
|
891 | (1) |
|
Intraoperative Irradiation |
|
|
892 | (1) |
|
|
|
892 | (2) |
|
|
|
894 | (1) |
|
Comparison between Centres: Mailed Dosimetry |
|
|
894 | (3) |
|
Recording and Verification---Networking |
|
|
897 | (12) |
|
|
|
Recording and Verification in External Beam Radiotherapy |
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
Control of the Treatment Machine |
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
Implementation of the Record and Verify System |
|
|
898 | (3) |
|
Workflow in a Networked Department |
|
|
898 | (2) |
|
|
|
900 | (1) |
|
|
|
900 | (1) |
|
|
|
900 | (1) |
|
|
|
901 | (1) |
|
|
|
901 | (1) |
|
|
|
901 | (2) |
|
|
|
901 | (1) |
|
|
|
902 | (1) |
|
|
|
903 | (1) |
|
|
|
903 | (1) |
|
|
|
903 | (1) |
|
|
|
903 | (1) |
|
Types of Error and Measures to Avoid Them |
|
|
903 | (1) |
|
|
|
904 | (1) |
|
Use of Override Facilities |
|
|
904 | (1) |
|
|
|
904 | (1) |
|
|
|
905 | (4) |
|
Integration with Hospital Information System |
|
|
906 | (3) |
|
Data Communication with DICOM |
|
|
909 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
910 | (1) |
|
|
|
910 | (4) |
|
|
|
910 | (2) |
|
|
|
912 | (1) |
|
DICOM Actions (Service Classes) |
|
|
912 | (1) |
|
DICOM Identifiers (Unique Identifiers) |
|
|
912 | (1) |
|
|
|
912 | (1) |
|
|
|
913 | (1) |
|
|
|
913 | (1) |
|
The DICOM Conformance Statement |
|
|
913 | (1) |
|
Data Translation and Quality Assurance |
|
|
914 | (1) |
|
DICOM Applied to Diagnostic Image Data |
|
|
914 | (1) |
|
|
|
914 | (1) |
|
|
|
915 | (1) |
|
|
|
915 | (1) |
|
Radiotherapy Data Objects |
|
|
915 | (3) |
|
|
|
916 | (1) |
|
|
|
916 | (1) |
|
|
|
916 | (1) |
|
|
|
916 | (1) |
|
DICOM RT Treatment Record |
|
|
917 | (1) |
|
|
|
917 | (1) |
|
|
|
917 | (1) |
|
Data Visualisation in the Radiotherapy Process |
|
|
918 | (1) |
|
|
|
918 | (1) |
|
Planning RT Image Viewing |
|
|
918 | (1) |
|
|
|
918 | (1) |
|
|
|
919 | (1) |
|
|
|
919 | (1) |
|
|
|
919 | (1) |
|
|
|
919 | (2) |
| References |
|
921 | (148) |
|
Part I: Special Techniques |
|
|
|
Conformal and Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy |
|
|
943 | (32) |
|
|
|
|
|
944 | (3) |
|
Optimisation and Inverse Planning |
|
|
947 | (10) |
|
|
|
947 | (1) |
|
Philosophy of Optimisation and Inverse Planning |
|
|
947 | (1) |
|
Principles of Modern Inverse Planning |
|
|
948 | (2) |
|
|
|
950 | (1) |
|
Optimisation by Simulated Annealing |
|
|
950 | (3) |
|
Faster Optimisation by Projection-Backprojection |
|
|
953 | (1) |
|
Example of IMRT-Delivered Dose Distributions Computed by Inverse-Planning Optimisation |
|
|
954 | (1) |
|
Optimisation in Commercial Treatment-Planning Systems |
|
|
954 | (3) |
|
Intensity-Modulated Beam Delivery |
|
|
957 | (18) |
|
Classes of IMRT Delivery Technique and History |
|
|
957 | (3) |
|
The Multiple-Static-Field (MSF) Technique |
|
|
960 | (4) |
|
The Dynamic Multileaf Collimator (DMLC) Technique |
|
|
964 | (3) |
|
|
|
967 | (2) |
|
|
|
969 | (2) |
|
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
Intensity-Modulated Arc Therapy (IMAT) |
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
|
|
972 | (1) |
|
|
|
973 | (2) |
|
Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy: Practical Aspects |
|
|
975 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
Requirements for Clinical Implementation |
|
|
976 | (3) |
|
Equipment, Space, and Shielding |
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
|
|
977 | (1) |
|
|
|
977 | (1) |
|
|
|
977 | (1) |
|
Physicists and Dosimetrists |
|
|
978 | (1) |
|
|
|
978 | (1) |
|
|
|
978 | (1) |
|
|
|
979 | (1) |
|
Guidelines on IMRT Treatments |
|
|
979 | (8) |
|
|
|
979 | (1) |
|
|
|
979 | (2) |
|
Structure Segmentation and Target Definition |
|
|
981 | (1) |
|
|
|
981 | (1) |
|
Plan Validation and Quality Assurance |
|
|
982 | (1) |
|
Patient Immobilisation, Position Verification, and Target Localisation |
|
|
983 | (1) |
|
|
|
984 | (3) |
|
|
|
987 | (18) |
|
|
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
Linear Accelerator-Based Radiosurgery |
|
|
989 | (1) |
|
|
|
990 | (2) |
|
|
|
990 | (1) |
|
Relocatable Stereotactic Frames |
|
|
991 | (1) |
|
Stereotactic Fiducial Systems |
|
|
992 | (1) |
|
Stereotactic Treatment Planning |
|
|
993 | (3) |
|
|
|
996 | (1) |
|
|
|
997 | (1) |
|
Pretreatment Quality Assurance |
|
|
998 | (2) |
|
Stereotactic Conformal Treatments and QA |
|
|
1000 | (1) |
|
Accuracy and Isodose Prescription |
|
|
1001 | (1) |
|
Stereotactic Radiotherapy to Extra-Cranial Sites |
|
|
1001 | (2) |
|
|
|
1003 | (2) |
|
Proton Beams in Radiotherapy |
|
|
1005 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
|
1006 | (1) |
|
Physical Basis: The Interactions of Protons with Matter |
|
|
1006 | (4) |
|
Inelastic Interactions with the Nucleus |
|
|
1007 | (1) |
|
Inelastic Interactions with Atomic Electrons |
|
|
1007 | (1) |
|
Elastic Interactions with the Nucleus |
|
|
1008 | (2) |
|
Technological Basis of Proton Therapy |
|
|
1010 | (10) |
|
Types of Particle Accelerator |
|
|
1010 | (1) |
|
|
|
1010 | (2) |
|
|
|
1012 | (1) |
|
The Isochronous Cyclotron with Separate Sectors |
|
|
1012 | (1) |
|
|
|
1013 | (1) |
|
|
|
1013 | (1) |
|
General Technical Design Considerations |
|
|
1014 | (1) |
|
|
|
1014 | (1) |
|
Radiation Protection and Neutron Shielding |
|
|
1015 | (1) |
|
Beam Shaping: Tools and Dosimetry |
|
|
1016 | (1) |
|
Depth-Dose Curves: Range and Modulation |
|
|
1017 | (1) |
|
Lateral Dose Profiles and Penumbra |
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
The Shaping of the Dose Distribution around a Target Volume |
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
Dynamic Techniques of Beam Shaping |
|
|
1019 | (1) |
|
|
|
1020 | (7) |
|
Treatment Planning Systems |
|
|
1020 | (1) |
|
|
|
1020 | (1) |
|
The Effect of Heterogeneities |
|
|
1020 | (1) |
|
Tools to Assist in the Visualisation and the Evaluation of the Treatment |
|
|
1021 | (1) |
|
Comparison with Photon Dose Distributions |
|
|
1022 | (1) |
|
|
|
1022 | (1) |
|
|
|
1023 | (3) |
|
Radiobiological Considerations |
|
|
1026 | (1) |
|
|
|
1027 | (4) |
|
|
|
1027 | (2) |
|
|
|
1029 | (1) |
|
Stereotactic Radiosurgery |
|
|
1030 | (1) |
|
Other Sites Suitable for Proton Therapy |
|
|
1031 | (1) |
|
Economic and Functional Considerations |
|
|
1031 | (1) |
|
|
|
1032 | (1) |
|
|
|
1033 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1033 | (1) |
|
|
|
1034 | (1) |
|
|
|
1035 | (1) |
|
|
|
1035 | (2) |
|
Custom-Designed Facilities |
|
|
1035 | (1) |
|
Use of a Standard Linear Accelerator |
|
|
1036 | (1) |
|
|
|
1037 | (4) |
|
|
|
1037 | (1) |
|
|
|
1037 | (3) |
|
|
|
1040 | (1) |
|
|
|
1041 | (1) |
|
|
|
1041 | (2) |
|
Total Skin Electron Irradiation |
|
|
1043 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1043 | (1) |
|
General Clinical and Patient-Related Problems |
|
|
1044 | (1) |
|
Physical and Practical Requirements |
|
|
1044 | (7) |
|
Dose Distribution along the Patient |
|
|
1044 | (1) |
|
Dose Distribution around the Patient |
|
|
1045 | (1) |
|
|
|
1046 | (1) |
|
|
|
1047 | (2) |
|
Dose Rate and Treatment Time |
|
|
1049 | (1) |
|
|
|
1049 | (2) |
|
|
|
1051 | (2) |
|
|
|
1053 | (16) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1053 | (7) |
|
|
|
1053 | (1) |
|
|
|
1054 | (1) |
|
Fast Neutron Interactions in Biological Tissues |
|
|
1054 | (1) |
|
|
|
1055 | (1) |
|
The Treatment Head and Equipment |
|
|
1056 | (1) |
|
|
|
1057 | (1) |
|
|
|
1058 | (1) |
|
Clinical Use of Fast Neutrons |
|
|
1058 | (1) |
|
|
|
1059 | (1) |
|
Boron Neutron Capture Therapy |
|
|
1060 | (1) |
|
|
|
1060 | (9) |
|
|
|
1060 | (3) |
|
Physical Parameters, Radiobiological Data and Treatment Planning |
|
|
1063 | (1) |
|
Accelerators, Beam-Delivery Systems, and PET Monitoring |
|
|
1064 | (1) |
|
|
|
1065 | (1) |
|
Economic Aspects, Future Developments and Conclusions |
|
|
1066 | (3) |
| References |
|
1069 | (124) |
|
|
|
|
Clinical Introduction to Brachytherapy |
|
|
1093 | (8) |
|
|
|
History and Rationale for Brachytherapy |
|
|
1093 | (8) |
|
Intracavitary Brachytherapy |
|
|
1094 | (1) |
|
|
|
1094 | (1) |
|
|
|
1095 | (1) |
|
|
|
1095 | (1) |
|
|
|
1095 | (1) |
|
|
|
1095 | (1) |
|
|
|
1095 | (1) |
|
|
|
1096 | (1) |
|
|
|
1096 | (1) |
|
Intraluminal Therapy: Bronchus and Oesophagus |
|
|
1096 | (1) |
|
Superficial Brachytherapy |
|
|
1097 | (1) |
|
Integration of Brachytherapy with External-Beam Therapy |
|
|
1097 | (1) |
|
|
|
1097 | (1) |
|
Dose-Rate Effects in Brachytherapy |
|
|
1098 | (1) |
|
Medium- and High-Dose-Rate Brachytherapy |
|
|
1098 | (1) |
|
Pulsed Dose-Rate Brachytherapy |
|
|
1098 | (1) |
|
Current Weaknesses and Potential Developments |
|
|
1099 | (2) |
|
Calibration and Quality Assurance of Brachytherapy Sources |
|
|
1101 | (16) |
|
|
|
|
|
1102 | (1) |
|
|
|
1102 | (5) |
|
|
|
1102 | (1) |
|
|
|
1102 | (1) |
|
|
|
1103 | (1) |
|
|
|
1103 | (1) |
|
|
|
1104 | (1) |
|
|
|
1104 | (1) |
|
|
|
1104 | (1) |
|
Beta Sources: Strontium-90, Yttrium-90, and Ruthenium-106 |
|
|
1105 | (1) |
|
|
|
1105 | (1) |
|
|
|
1106 | (1) |
|
|
|
1106 | (1) |
|
|
|
1106 | (1) |
|
|
|
1107 | (1) |
|
|
|
1107 | (1) |
|
|
|
1107 | (1) |
|
Specification of Brachytherapy Source Strength |
|
|
1107 | (2) |
|
Calibration of Brachytherapy Sources |
|
|
1109 | (5) |
|
Long Half-Life Sources of Low Activity (226Ra, 137Cs, and 60Co) |
|
|
1111 | (1) |
|
Sources Used in Automatic Afterloading Systems (137Cs, 192Ir, and 60Co) |
|
|
1111 | (2) |
|
Short Half-Life Sources of Low Activity Such as 198Au, 192Ir, and 125I Sources |
|
|
1113 | (1) |
|
|
|
1114 | (1) |
|
Quality Assurance of Sealed Sources |
|
|
1114 | (3) |
|
Leakage and Contamination Checks |
|
|
1114 | (1) |
|
Radiography and Autoradiography |
|
|
1115 | (2) |
|
Afterloading Equipment for Brachytherapy |
|
|
1117 | (14) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1117 | (1) |
|
|
|
1118 | (2) |
|
|
|
1118 | (1) |
|
|
|
1119 | (1) |
|
Remote-Controlled Afterloading: Low and Medium Dose Rates |
|
|
1120 | (4) |
|
|
|
1121 | (3) |
|
Remote-Controlled Afterloading: High Dose Rates |
|
|
1124 | (2) |
|
Endovascular Brachytherapy |
|
|
1125 | (1) |
|
|
|
1126 | (1) |
|
Aspects of Quality Assurance for Afterloading Systems |
|
|
1126 | (5) |
|
|
|
1126 | (2) |
|
|
|
1128 | (1) |
|
|
|
1128 | (1) |
|
|
|
1128 | (1) |
|
|
|
1129 | (2) |
|
Dose Calculation for Brachytherapy Sources |
|
|
1131 | (10) |
|
|
|
|
|
1131 | (1) |
|
|
|
1132 | (1) |
|
Extension to a Line Source |
|
|
1133 | (2) |
|
|
|
1135 | (1) |
|
Application of TG43 to 192Ir Dosimetry |
|
|
1135 | (1) |
|
Application of TG43 to 125I Dosimetry |
|
|
1136 | (1) |
|
|
|
1136 | (1) |
|
Conversion Factors for Older Methods of Activity Specification |
|
|
1137 | (1) |
|
|
|
1137 | (1) |
|
|
|
1138 | (1) |
|
|
|
1138 | (1) |
|
Limitations of Brachytherapy Dose Calculations |
|
|
1138 | (3) |
|
Unknown Source Orientation |
|
|
1139 | (1) |
|
Shielding by Other Sources |
|
|
1139 | (1) |
|
|
|
1139 | (1) |
|
Inhomogeneity Corrections |
|
|
1139 | (2) |
|
Brachytherapy Treatment Planning |
|
|
1141 | (40) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1142 | (10) |
|
|
|
1142 | (1) |
|
Paris Predictive Dose-Planning System |
|
|
1143 | (1) |
|
|
|
1143 | (1) |
|
|
|
1143 | (1) |
|
|
|
1144 | (1) |
|
|
|
1144 | (1) |
|
Dose Specification and Calculation |
|
|
1144 | (3) |
|
Dose Calculation for Real Implants |
|
|
1147 | (1) |
|
|
|
1147 | (1) |
|
|
|
1148 | (1) |
|
Calculation of Reference Dose Rate |
|
|
1148 | (2) |
|
Example Iridium Implant Calculation |
|
|
1150 | (1) |
|
ICRU Recommendations on Interstitial Brachytherapy Dosimetry |
|
|
1150 | (1) |
|
|
|
1151 | (1) |
|
|
|
1151 | (1) |
|
High and Low Dose Volumes |
|
|
1151 | (1) |
|
|
|
1152 | (1) |
|
|
|
1152 | (1) |
|
Gynaecological Intracavitary Treatments |
|
|
1152 | (12) |
|
|
|
1152 | (1) |
|
|
|
1152 | (2) |
|
Extension of Manchester System to Low-Dose-Rate Remote Afterloading |
|
|
1154 | (1) |
|
Geometrical Considerations |
|
|
1154 | (1) |
|
|
|
1155 | (1) |
|
|
|
1156 | (1) |
|
HDR Treatment of Gynaecological Carcinomas |
|
|
1157 | (1) |
|
Combined Intracavitary and External-Beam Therapy |
|
|
1158 | (1) |
|
ICRU Recommendations on Gynaecological Brachytherapy |
|
|
1159 | (1) |
|
Target and Treatment Volumes |
|
|
1159 | (1) |
|
|
|
1160 | (1) |
|
|
|
1160 | (2) |
|
|
|
1162 | (1) |
|
Total Reference Air Kerma |
|
|
1162 | (1) |
|
|
|
1162 | (2) |
|
High-Dose-Rate Techniques for Non Gynaecological Sites |
|
|
1164 | (1) |
|
Carcinoma of the Bronchus and Oesophagus |
|
|
1164 | (1) |
|
Carcinoma of the Nasopharynx |
|
|
1165 | (1) |
|
|
|
1165 | (1) |
|
Specialised Moulds and Applicators |
|
|
1165 | (1) |
|
|
|
1165 | (3) |
|
Dosimetry Considerations for Brachytherapy in General |
|
|
1168 | (4) |
|
|
|
1168 | (1) |
|
Methods of Implant Reconstruction |
|
|
1169 | (2) |
|
|
|
1171 | (1) |
|
Optimisation in Afterloading Brachytherapy |
|
|
1172 | (9) |
|
|
|
1172 | (2) |
|
Approaches to Optimisation in Brachytherapy |
|
|
1174 | (1) |
|
|
|
1174 | (1) |
|
|
|
1175 | (2) |
|
|
|
1177 | (4) |
|
Radiobiology of Brachytherapy |
|
|
1181 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
1182 | (1) |
|
|
|
1182 | (1) |
|
|
|
1182 | (2) |
|
The Concept of Biological Dose |
|
|
1184 | (3) |
|
Effect of Cellular Repopulation on Biological Dose |
|
|
1184 | (1) |
|
Fractionated High Dose-Rate (FHDR) Brachytherapy |
|
|
1185 | (1) |
|
|
|
1185 | (1) |
|
Continuous Low Dose-Rate (CLDR) Brachytherapy |
|
|
1186 | (1) |
|
The Concept of Equivalence |
|
|
1187 | (1) |
|
Intercomparisons between CLDR and FHDR |
|
|
1187 | (2) |
|
|
|
1189 | (1) |
|
Dose Gradients and Integrated Biological Response |
|
|
1189 | (1) |
|
Consequences of Dynamic Changes during the Course of a Brachytherapy Treatment |
|
|
1190 | (1) |
|
The RBE Effect in Brachytherapy |
|
|
1191 | (2) |
| References |
|
1193 | (32) |
|
Part K: Therapy with Unsealed Sources |
|
|
|
Dosimetry of Unsealed Sources |
|
|
1205 | (6) |
|
|
|
|
|
Medical Internal Radiation Dosimetry (MIRD) in Theory |
|
|
1205 | (2) |
|
|
|
1207 | (1) |
|
|
|
1208 | (1) |
|
Patient-Specific Calculations |
|
|
1209 | (1) |
|
Alternative Dosimetry Methods |
|
|
1209 | (2) |
|
|
|
1209 | (1) |
|
|
|
1210 | (1) |
|
Radionuclide Selection for Unsealed Source Therapy |
|
|
1211 | (8) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1211 | (1) |
|
|
|
1212 | (3) |
|
|
|
1215 | (1) |
|
|
|
1216 | (1) |
|
Radiochemical Conjugation |
|
|
1216 | (1) |
|
Radiobiological Considerations |
|
|
1216 | (1) |
|
Matched Pairs for Imaging/Therapy |
|
|
1217 | (2) |
|
Radiopharmaceutical Targeting for Unsealed Source Therapy |
|
|
1219 | (6) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1219 | (1) |
|
|
|
1220 | (1) |
|
|
|
1220 | (1) |
|
|
|
1220 | (1) |
|
|
|
1221 | (1) |
|
|
|
1221 | (1) |
|
|
|
1221 | (1) |
|
|
|
1221 | (1) |
|
|
|
1222 | (1) |
|
|
|
1222 | (1) |
|
|
|
1222 | (1) |
|
|
|
1222 | (1) |
|
|
|
1223 | (1) |
|
Intralesional Instillation |
|
|
1223 | (1) |
|
|
|
1223 | (1) |
|
Current Status of Therapy Using Unsealed Sources |
|
|
1223 | (2) |
| References |
|
1225 | (72) |
|
Part L: Radiation Protection in Radiotherapy |
|
|
|
Theoretical Background to Radiation Protection |
|
|
1233 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
1234 | (2) |
|
Deterministic and Stochastic Effects |
|
|
1234 | (1) |
|
|
|
1234 | (1) |
|
|
|
1235 | (1) |
|
|
|
1236 | (6) |
|
Sources of Data for Risk Estimates |
|
|
1236 | (2) |
|
Dose and Dose-Rate Effectiveness Factor |
|
|
1238 | (1) |
|
Low Dose Threshold Theories |
|
|
1238 | (1) |
|
Relative and Absolute Risks |
|
|
1238 | (1) |
|
Effect of Age at Exposure and Lifetime Risk |
|
|
1239 | (1) |
|
|
|
1239 | (1) |
|
|
|
1239 | (1) |
|
Risk Coefficients for Partial Body Irradiation |
|
|
1240 | (1) |
|
Effect of Radiation on the Developing Foetus |
|
|
1241 | (1) |
|
Principles of Radiation Protection |
|
|
1242 | (3) |
|
Practices and Interventions |
|
|
1242 | (1) |
|
Basis for Dose Regulation |
|
|
1242 | (1) |
|
Limitation of Dose to Staff |
|
|
1243 | (1) |
|
Limitation of Dose to the General Public |
|
|
1243 | (1) |
|
|
|
1243 | (1) |
|
|
|
1243 | (2) |
|
Radiation Protection Regulation |
|
|
1245 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1246 | (1) |
|
Protection of Staff and the Public |
|
|
1247 | (4) |
|
|
|
1247 | (1) |
|
|
|
1247 | (1) |
|
Dose Limits for Staff and Public |
|
|
1248 | (1) |
|
|
|
1248 | (1) |
|
|
|
1248 | (1) |
|
Classification and Monitoring of Staff |
|
|
1249 | (1) |
|
Dose Limitation in Special Situations: Comforters and Carers |
|
|
1249 | (1) |
|
Qualified Expert (or Radiation Protection Adviser) |
|
|
1250 | (1) |
|
|
|
1250 | (1) |
|
Critical Examination of Equipment |
|
|
1250 | (1) |
|
|
|
1250 | (1) |
|
Protection of the Patient |
|
|
1251 | (1) |
|
Justification of Medical Exposures |
|
|
1251 | (1) |
|
Optimisation of Exposures |
|
|
1251 | (1) |
|
Diagnostic Reference Levels |
|
|
1252 | (1) |
|
|
|
1252 | (1) |
|
|
|
1252 | (1) |
|
|
|
1252 | (2) |
|
Storage of Radioactive Material |
|
|
1253 | (1) |
|
Disposal of Radioactive Waste |
|
|
1253 | (1) |
|
Administration of Radioactive Substances |
|
|
1254 | (1) |
|
Transport of Radioactive Substances |
|
|
1254 | (3) |
|
Practical Radiation Protection in Radiotherapy |
|
|
1257 | (28) |
|
|
|
|
|
Design of External Beam Treatment Facilities |
|
|
1258 | (11) |
|
|
|
1258 | (1) |
|
|
|
1259 | (1) |
|
|
|
1259 | (1) |
|
|
|
1260 | (1) |
|
Neutrons and Induced Radioactivity |
|
|
1260 | (2) |
|
|
|
1262 | (1) |
|
Treatment-Room Design Calculations |
|
|
1262 | (1) |
|
|
|
1263 | (1) |
|
|
|
1263 | (1) |
|
Room Entrances: Protection against Scattered Radiation |
|
|
1264 | (1) |
|
Room Entrances: Protection against Neutrons |
|
|
1264 | (1) |
|
|
|
1265 | (1) |
|
|
|
1265 | (1) |
|
Interlocks and Other Issues |
|
|
1266 | (1) |
|
Upgrading Existing Treatment Rooms |
|
|
1267 | (1) |
|
|
|
1267 | (1) |
|
|
|
1268 | (1) |
|
Design of Facilities for Sealed and Unsealed Source Therapy |
|
|
1269 | (2) |
|
|
|
1269 | (1) |
|
Facilities for Unsealed-Source Therapy |
|
|
1270 | (1) |
|
Equipment and Source Handling |
|
|
1271 | (4) |
|
Teletherapy Isotope Sources |
|
|
1271 | (1) |
|
|
|
1272 | (1) |
|
Manipulation of Low Activity Brachytherapy Sources |
|
|
1272 | (1) |
|
|
|
1273 | (1) |
|
Dispensing and Handling of Unsealed Radioactive Substances |
|
|
1273 | (1) |
|
Monitors for Working with Unsealed Radioisotopes |
|
|
1274 | (1) |
|
Monitoring of Staff Working with Unsealed Radioactive Substances |
|
|
1274 | (1) |
|
|
|
1275 | (1) |
|
|
|
1275 | (6) |
|
Management of Brachytherapy Patients |
|
|
1275 | (1) |
|
|
|
1275 | (1) |
|
|
|
1275 | (1) |
|
Patients with Permanent Implants Leaving Hospital |
|
|
1275 | (1) |
|
Management of the Patient Undergoing Unsealed-Source Radiotherapy |
|
|
1276 | (1) |
|
|
|
1276 | (1) |
|
|
|
1277 | (2) |
|
Advice to Patients and Carers |
|
|
1279 | (1) |
|
Death of Patients Containing Radioactive Materials |
|
|
1280 | (1) |
|
Risks Associated with Radiotherapy Treatment |
|
|
1281 | (4) |
|
Radiotherapy of Patients of Child-Bearing Age |
|
|
1281 | (1) |
|
External-Beam Therapy of Potentially Pregnant Women |
|
|
1281 | (1) |
|
Unsealed-Source Therapy of Pregnant or Nursing Mothers |
|
|
1281 | (1) |
|
Irradiation of the Gonads |
|
|
1282 | (1) |
|
Second Cancer Risk from Radiotherapy |
|
|
1282 | (1) |
|
Deterministic Risk of Organ Damage |
|
|
1283 | (1) |
|
|
|
1283 | (2) |
|
Appendix L Radiation Protection Regulation in the United Kingdom |
|
|
1285 | (12) |
|
|
|
|
|
U.K. Regulatory Framework |
|
|
1286 | (6) |
|
|
|
1286 | (1) |
|
Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999 |
|
|
1287 | (1) |
|
|
|
1287 | (1) |
|
|
|
1287 | (1) |
|
|
|
1287 | (1) |
|
|
|
1288 | (1) |
|
Radiation Protection Adviser |
|
|
1288 | (1) |
|
Radiation Protection Supervisors |
|
|
1288 | (1) |
|
|
|
1288 | (1) |
|
Ionising Radiation (Medical Exposures) Regulations 2002 |
|
|
1289 | (1) |
|
|
|
1289 | (1) |
|
|
|
1289 | (1) |
|
|
|
1290 | (1) |
|
|
|
1290 | (1) |
|
|
|
1290 | (1) |
|
Radiation (Emergency Preparedness and Public Information) Regulations 2001 |
|
|
1290 | (1) |
|
Radioactive Substances Act 1993 Control of Sources and Waste Disposal |
|
|
1290 | (1) |
|
Administration of Radioactive Substances to Patients |
|
|
1291 | (1) |
|
The Radioactive Material (Road Transport) Regulations 2002 |
|
|
1291 | (1) |
|
Example Wall-Thickness Calculations |
|
|
1292 | (3) |
|
Local Rules for Handling Radioactive Sources |
|
|
1295 | (2) |
| References |
|
1297 | (98) |
|
|
|
|
Tables M.1 Physical Constants and Useful Data |
|
|
1305 | (3) |
|
|
|
Tables M.2 Electron Stopping Powers, Ranges, and Radiation Yields |
|
|
1308 | (27) |
|
|
|
Tables M.3 Photon Interaction Coefficients |
|
|
1335 | (53) |
|
|
|
Tables M.4 Radioactive Nuclides Used in Radiotherapy |
|
|
1388 | (7) |
|
|
| References |
|
1395 | (2) |
| Index |
|
1397 | |
