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Chapter 1 Cells, Genomes, and the Diversity of Life |
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1 | (48) |
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The Universal Features Of Life On Earth |
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2 | (8) |
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All Cells Store Their Hereditary Information in the Form of Double-Strand DNA Molecules |
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2 | (1) |
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All Cells Replicate Their Hereditary Information by Templated Polymerization |
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3 | (2) |
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All Cells Transcribe Portions of Their DNA into RNA Molecules |
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5 | (1) |
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All Cells Use Proteins as Catalysts |
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6 | (1) |
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All Cells Translate RNA into Protein in the Same Way |
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6 | (1) |
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Each Protein Is Encoded by a Specific Gene |
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7 | (1) |
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Life Requires a Continual Input of Free Energy |
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7 | (1) |
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All Cells Function as Biochemical Factories |
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8 | (1) |
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All Cells Are Enclosed in a Plasma Membrane Across Which Nutrients and Waste Materials Must Pass |
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8 | (1) |
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Cells Operate at a Microscopic Scale Dominated by Random Thermal Motion |
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9 | (1) |
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A Living Cell Can Exist with 500 Genes |
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10 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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Genome Diversification And The Tree Of Life |
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10 | (12) |
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The Tree of Life Has Three Major Domains: Eukaryotes, Bacteria, and Archaea |
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11 | (2) |
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Eukaryotes Make Up the Domain of Life That Is Most Familiar to Us |
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13 | (1) |
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On the Basis of Genome Analysis, Bacteria Are the Most Diverse Group of Organisms on the Planet |
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13 | (2) |
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Archaea: The Most Mysterious Domain of Life |
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15 | (1) |
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Organisms Occupy Most of Our Planet |
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15 | (1) |
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Cells Can Be Powered by a Wide Variety of Free-Energy Sources |
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15 | (2) |
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Some Cells Fix Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide for Other Cells |
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17 | (1) |
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Genomes Diversify Over Evolutionary Time, Producing New Types of Organisms |
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18 | (1) |
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New Genes Are Generated from Preexisting Genes |
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19 | (1) |
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Gene Duplications Give Rise to Families of Related Genes Within a Single Genome |
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20 | (1) |
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The Function of a Gene Can Often Be Deduced from Its Nucleotide Sequence |
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20 | (1) |
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More Than 200 Gene Families Are Common to All Three Domains of Life |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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Eukaryotes and the Origin Of The Eukaryotic Cell |
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22 | (9) |
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Eukaryotic Cells Contain a Variety of Organelles |
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23 | (2) |
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Mitochondria Evolved from a Symbiotic Bacterium Captured by an Ancient Archaeon |
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25 | (1) |
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Chloroplasts Evolved from a Symbiotic Photosynthetic Bacterium Engulfed by an Ancient Eukaryotic Cell |
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26 | (1) |
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Eukaryotes Have Hybrid Genomes |
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27 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic Genomes Are Big |
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28 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic Genomes Are Rich in Regulatory DNA |
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28 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic Genomes Define the Program of Multicellular Development |
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29 | (1) |
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Many Eukaryotes Live as Solitary Cells |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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31 | (18) |
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Mutations Reveal the Functions of Genes |
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32 | (1) |
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Molecular Biology Began with a Spotlight on One Bacterium and Its Viruses |
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33 | (2) |
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The Focus on E. coli as a Model Organism Has Accelerated Many Subsequent Discoveries |
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35 | (1) |
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A Yeast Serves as a Minimal Model Eukaryote |
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36 | (1) |
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The Expression Levels of All the Genes of an Organism Can Be Determined |
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37 | (1) |
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Arabidopsis Has Been Chosen as a Model Plant |
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38 | (1) |
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The World of Animal Cells Is Mainly Represented by a Worm, a Fly, a Fish, a Mouse, and a Human |
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38 | (1) |
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Studies in the Fruit Fly Drosophila Provide a Key to Vertebrate Development |
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39 | (1) |
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The Frog and the Zebrafish Provide Highly Accessible Vertebrate Models |
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40 | (1) |
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The Mouse Is the Predominant Mammalian Model Organism |
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41 | (1) |
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The COVID-19 Pandemic Has Focused Scientists on the SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus |
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42 | (2) |
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Humans Are Unique in Reporting on Their Own Peculiarities |
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44 | (1) |
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To Understand Cells and Organisms Will Require Mathematics, Computers, and Quantitative Information |
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44 | (1) |
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45 | (1) |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 Cell Chemistry and Bioenergetics |
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49 | (66) |
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The Chemical Components Of A Cell |
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49 | (8) |
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Water Is Held Together by Hydrogen Bonds |
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50 | (1) |
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Four Types of Noncovalent Attractions Help Bring Molecules Together in Cells |
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51 | (1) |
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Some Polar Molecules Form Acids and Bases in Water |
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52 | (1) |
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A Cell Is Formed from Carbon Compounds |
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53 | (1) |
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Cells Contain Four Major Families of Small Organic Molecules |
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53 | (1) |
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The Chemistry of Cells Is Dominated by Macromolecules with Remarkable Properties |
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54 | (1) |
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Noncovalent Bonds Specify Both the Precise Shape of a Macromolecule and Its Binding to Other Molecules |
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55 | (1) |
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56 | (1) |
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Catalysis And The Use Of Energy By Cells |
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57 | (23) |
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Cell Metabolism Is Organized by Enzymes |
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57 | (1) |
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Biological Order Is Made Possible by the Release of Heat Energy from Cells |
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58 | (3) |
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Cells Obtain Energy by the Oxidation of Organic Molecules |
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61 | (1) |
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Oxidation and Reduction Involve Electron Transfers |
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62 | (1) |
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Enzymes Lower the Activation-Energy Barriers That Block Chemical Reactions |
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63 | (1) |
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Enzymes Can Drive Substrate Molecules Along Specific Reaction Pathways |
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64 | (1) |
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How Enzymes Find Their Substrates: The Enormous Rapidity of Molecular Motions |
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65 | (1) |
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The Free-Energy Change for a Reaction, AG, Determines Whether It Can Occur Spontaneously |
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66 | (1) |
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The Concentration of Reactants Influences the Free-Energy Change and a Reaction's Direction |
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67 | (1) |
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The Standard Free-Energy Change, ΔG°, Makes It Possible to Compare the Energetics of Different Reactions |
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67 | (1) |
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The Equilibrium Constant and ΔG° Are Readily Derived from Each Other |
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68 | (1) |
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The Free-Energy Changes of Coupled Reactions Are Additive |
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69 | (1) |
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Activated Carrier Molecules Are Essential for Biosynthesis |
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69 | (1) |
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The Formation of an Activated Carrier Is Coupled to an Energetically Favorable Reaction |
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70 | (1) |
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ATP Is the Most Widely Used Activated Carrier Molecule |
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71 | (1) |
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Energy Stored in ATP Is Often Harnessed to Join Two Molecules Together |
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72 | (1) |
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NADH and NADPH Are Important Electron Carriers |
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73 | (2) |
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There Are Many Other Activated Carrier Molecules in Cells |
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75 | (1) |
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The Synthesis of Biological Polymers Is Driven by ATP Hydrolysis |
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76 | (2) |
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78 | (2) |
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How Cells Obtain Energy From Food |
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80 | (35) |
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Glycolysis Is a Central ATP-producing Pathway |
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80 | (3) |
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Glycolysis Illustrates How Enzymes Couple Oxidation to Energy Storage |
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83 | (1) |
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Fermentations Produce ATP in the Absence of Oxygen |
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84 | (1) |
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Organisms Store Food Molecules in Special Reservoirs |
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85 | (1) |
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Between Meals, Most Animal Cells Derive Their Energy from Fatty Acids Obtained from Fat |
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86 | (1) |
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Sugars and Fats Are Both Degraded to Acetyl CoA in Mitochondria |
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87 | (1) |
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The Citric Acid Cycle Generates NADH by Oxidizing Acetyl Groups to CO2 |
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88 | (2) |
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Electron Transport Drives the Synthesis of the Majority of the ATP in Most Cells |
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90 | (1) |
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Many Biosynthetic Pathways Begin with Glycolysis or the Citric Acid Cycle |
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90 | (1) |
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Animals Must Obtain All the Nitrogen and Sulfur They Need from Food |
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91 | (1) |
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Metabolism Is Highly Organized and Regulated |
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92 | (1) |
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93 | (19) |
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112 | (2) |
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114 | (1) |
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115 | (68) |
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The Atomic Structure Of Proteins |
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115 | (25) |
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The Structure of a Protein Is Specified by Its Amino Acid Sequence |
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115 | (6) |
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Proteins Fold into a Conformation of Lowest Energy |
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121 | (1) |
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The a Helix and the β Sheet Are Common Folding Motifs |
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121 | (2) |
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Four Levels of Organization Are Considered to Contribute to Protein Structure |
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123 | (1) |
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Protein Domains Are the Modular Units from Which Larger Proteins Are Built |
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124 | (2) |
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Proteins Also Contain Unstructured Regions |
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126 | (1) |
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All Protein Structures Are Dynamic, Interconverting Rapidly Between an Ensemble of Closely Related Conformations Because of Thermal Energy |
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126 | (1) |
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Function Has Selected for a Tiny Fraction of the Many Possible Polypeptide Chains |
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126 | (1) |
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Proteins Can Be Classified into Many Families |
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127 | (2) |
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Some Protein Domains Are Found in Many Different Proteins |
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129 | (1) |
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The Human Genome Encodes a Complex Set of Proteins, Revealing That Much Remains Unknown |
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130 | (1) |
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Protein Molecules Often Contain More Than One Polypeptide Chain |
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130 | (1) |
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Some Globular Proteins Form Long Helical Filaments |
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131 | (1) |
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Protein Molecules Can Have Elongated, Fibrous Shapes |
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132 | (1) |
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Covalent Cross-Linkages Stabilize Extracellular Proteins |
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133 | (1) |
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Protein Molecules Often Serve as Subunits for the Assembly of Large Structures |
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134 | (2) |
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Many Structures in Cells Are Capable of Self-Assembly |
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136 | (1) |
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Assembly Factors Often Aid the Formation of Complex Biological Structures |
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136 | (1) |
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When Assembly Processes Go Wrong: The Case of Amyloid Fibrils |
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137 | (2) |
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Amyloid Structures Can Also Perform Useful Functions in Cells |
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139 | (1) |
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140 | (1) |
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140 | (43) |
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All Proteins Bind to Other Molecules |
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140 | (2) |
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The Surface Conformation of a Protein Determines Its Chemistry |
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142 | (1) |
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Sequence Comparisons Between Protein Family Members Highlight Crucial Ligand-binding Sites |
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142 | (1) |
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Proteins Bind to Other Proteins Through Several Types of Interfaces |
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143 | (1) |
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Antibody Binding Sites Are Especially Versatile |
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144 | (1) |
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The Equilibrium Constant Measures Binding Strength |
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145 | (1) |
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Enzymes Are Powerful and Highly Specific Catalysts |
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146 | (1) |
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Substrate Binding Is the First Step in Enzyme Catalysis |
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146 | (2) |
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Enzymes Speed Reactions by Selectively Stabilizing Transition States |
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148 | (1) |
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Enzymes Can Use Simultaneous Acid and Base Catalysis |
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148 | (1) |
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Lysozyme Illustrates How an Enzyme Works |
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149 | (3) |
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Tightly Bound Small Molecules Add Extra Functions to Proteins |
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152 | (3) |
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The Cell Regulates the Catalytic Activities of Its Enzymes |
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155 | (1) |
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Allosteric Enzymes Have Two or More Binding Sites That Interact |
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155 | (2) |
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Two Ligands Whose Binding Sites Are Coupled Must Reciprocally Affect Each Other's Binding |
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157 | (1) |
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Symmetrical Protein Assemblies Produce Cooperative Allosteric Transitions |
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158 | (1) |
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Many Changes in Proteins Are Driven by Protein Phosphorylation |
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159 | (1) |
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A Eukaryotic Cell Contains a Large Collection of Protein Kinases and Protein Phosphatases |
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159 | (2) |
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The Regulation of the Src Protein Kinase Reveals How a Protein Can Function as a Microprocessor |
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161 | (1) |
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Regulatory GTP-binding Proteins Are Switched On and Off by the Gain and Loss of a Phosphate Group |
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162 | (1) |
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Proteins Can Be Regulated by the Covalent Addition of Other Proteins |
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162 | (1) |
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An Elaborate Ubiquitin-conjugating System Is Used to Mark Proteins |
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163 | (1) |
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Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts Make Efficient Use of Genetic Information |
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164 | (2) |
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A GTP-binding Protein Shows How Large Protein Movements Can Be Generated from Small Ones |
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166 | (1) |
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Motor Proteins Produce Directional Movement in Cells |
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167 | (1) |
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Proteins Often Form Large Complexes That Function as Protein Machines |
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167 | (1) |
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The Disordered Regions in Proteins Are Critical for a Set of Different Functions |
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168 | (2) |
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Scaffolds Bring Sets of Interacting Macromolecules Together and Concentrate Them in Selected Regions of a Cell |
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170 | (1) |
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Macromolecules Can Self-assemble to Form Biomolecular Condensates |
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171 | (2) |
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Classical Studies of Phase Separation Have Relevance for Biomolecular Condensates |
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173 | (1) |
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A Comparison of Three Important Types of Large Biological Assemblies |
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174 | (1) |
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Many Proteins Are Controlled by Covalent Modifications That Direct Them to Specific Sites Inside the Cell |
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175 | (1) |
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A Complex Network of Protein Interactions Underlies Cell Function |
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176 | (2) |
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Protein Structures Can Be Predicted and New Proteins Designed |
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178 | (1) |
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179 | (1) |
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179 | (2) |
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181 | (2) |
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Chapter 4 DNA, Chromosomes, and Genomes |
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183 | (70) |
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The Structure And Function Of Dna |
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185 | (4) |
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A DNA Molecule Consists of Two Complementary Chains of Nucleotides |
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185 | (2) |
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The Structure of DNA Provides a Mechanism for Heredity |
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187 | (2) |
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In Eukaryotes, DNA Is Enclosed in a Cell Nucleus |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (1) |
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Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber |
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189 | (14) |
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Eukaryotic DNA Is Packaged into a Set of Chromosomes |
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190 | (1) |
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Chromosomes Contain Long Strings of Genes |
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191 | (2) |
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The Nucleotide Sequence of the Human Genome Shows How Our Genes Are Arranged |
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193 | (2) |
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Each DNA Molecule That Forms a Linear Chromosome Must Contain a Centromere, Two Telomeres, and Replication Origins |
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195 | (2) |
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DNA Molecules Are Highly Condensed in Chromosomes |
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197 | (1) |
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Nucleosomes Are a Basic Unit of Eukaryotic Chromosome Structure |
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197 | (1) |
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The Structure of the Nucleosome Core Particle Reveals How DNA Is Packaged |
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198 | (2) |
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Nucleosomes Have a Dynamic Structure and Are Frequently Subjected to Changes Catalyzed by ATP-dependent Chromatin-remodeling Complexes |
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200 | (2) |
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Attractions Between Nucleosomes Compact the Chromatin Fiber |
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202 | (1) |
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203 | (1) |
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The Effect Of Chromatin Structure On DNA Function |
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203 | (14) |
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Different Regions of the Human Genome Are Packaged Very Differently in Chromatin |
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204 | (1) |
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Heterochromatin Is Highly Condensed and Restricts Gene Expression |
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204 | (1) |
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The Heterochromatic State Can Spread Along a Chromosome and Be Inherited from One Cell Generation to the Next |
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205 | (1) |
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The Core Histones Are Covalently Modified at Many Different Sites |
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206 | (2) |
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Chromatin Acquires Additional Variety Through the Site-specific Insertion of a Small Set of Histone Variants |
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208 | (1) |
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Covalent Modifications and Histone Variants Can Act in Concert to Control Chromosome Functions |
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208 | (2) |
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A Complex of Reader and Writer Proteins Can Spread Specific Chromatin Modifications Along a Chromosome |
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210 | (2) |
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Barrier DNA-Protein Complexes Block the Spread of Reader-Writer Complexes and Thereby Separate Neighboring Chromatin Domains |
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212 | (1) |
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Centromeres Have a Special, Inherited Chromatin Structure |
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213 | (2) |
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Some Forms of Chromatin Can Be Directly Inherited |
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215 | (1) |
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The Abnormal Perturbations of Heterochromatin That Arise During Tumor Progression Contribute to Many Cancers |
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215 | (2) |
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217 | (1) |
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The Global Structure Of Chromosomes |
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217 | (12) |
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Chromosomes Are Folded into Large Loops of Chromatin |
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217 | (1) |
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Polytene Chromosomes Are Uniquely Useful for Visualizing Chromatin Structures |
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218 | (2) |
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Chromosome Loops Decondense When the Genes Within Them Are Expressed |
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220 | (1) |
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Mammalian Interphase Chromosomes Occupy Discrete Territories in the Nucleus, with Their Heterochromatin and Euchromatin Distributed Differently |
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220 | (1) |
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A Biochemical Technique Called Hi-C Reveals Details of Chromosome Organization |
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221 | (2) |
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Chromosomal DNA Is Organized into Loops by Large Protein Rings |
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223 | (2) |
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Euchromatin and Heterochromatin Separate Spatially in the Nucleus |
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225 | (2) |
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Mitotic Chromosomes Are Highly Condensed |
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227 | (1) |
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228 | (1) |
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229 | (24) |
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Genome Comparisons Reveal Functional DNA Sequences by Their Conservation Throughout Evolution |
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230 | (1) |
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Genome Alterations Are Caused by Failures of the Normal Mechanisms for Copying and Maintaining DNA, as Well as by Transposable DNA Elements |
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231 | (1) |
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The Genome Sequences of Two Species Differ in Proportion to the Length of Time Since They Have Separately Evolved |
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232 | (1) |
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Phylogenetic Trees Constructed from a Comparison of DNA Sequences Trace the Relationships of All Organisms |
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233 | (1) |
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A Comparison of Human and Mouse Chromosomes Shows How the Structures of Genomes Diverge |
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234 | (2) |
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The Size of a Vertebrate Genome Reflects the Relative Rates of DNA Addition and DNA Loss in a Lineage |
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236 | (1) |
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Multispecies Sequence Comparisons Identify Many Conserved DNA Sequences of Unknown Function |
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237 | (1) |
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Changes in Previously Conserved Sequences Can Help Decipher Critical Steps in Evolution |
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238 | (1) |
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Mutations in the DNA Sequences That Control Gene Expression Have Driven Many of the Evolutionary Changes in Vertebrates |
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239 | (1) |
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Gene Duplication Also Provides an Important Source of Genetic Novelty During Evolution |
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240 | (1) |
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240 | (1) |
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The Evolution of the Globin Gene Family Shows How DNA Duplications Contribute to the Evolution of Organisms |
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241 | (1) |
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Genes Encoding New Proteins Can Be Created by the Recombination of Exons |
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242 | (1) |
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Neutral Mutations Often Spread to Become Fixed in a Population, with a Probability That Depends on Population Size |
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243 | (1) |
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We Can Trace Human History by Analyzing Genomes |
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244 | (1) |
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The Sequencing of Hundreds of Thousands of Human Genomes Reveals Much Variation |
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245 | (1) |
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Most of the Variants Observed in the Human Population Are Common Alleles, with at Most a Weak Effect on Phenotype |
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246 | (1) |
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Forensic Analyses Exploit Special DNA Sequences with Unusually High Mutation Rates |
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247 | (1) |
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An Understanding of Human Variation Is Critical for Improving Medicine |
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248 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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249 | (2) |
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251 | (2) |
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Chapter 5 DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination |
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253 | (68) |
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The Maintenance of DNA Sequences |
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253 | (2) |
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Mutation Rates Are Extremely Low |
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253 | (1) |
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Low Mutation Rates Are Necessary for Life as We Know It |
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254 | (1) |
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255 | (1) |
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DNA Replication Mechanisms |
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255 | (17) |
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Base-pairing Underlies DNA Replication and DNA Repair |
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255 | (1) |
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The DNA Replication Fork Is Asymmetrical |
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256 | (2) |
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The High Fidelity of DNA Replication Requires Several Proofreading Mechanisms |
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258 | (2) |
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DNA Replication in the 5'-to-3' Direction Allows Efficient Error Correction |
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260 | (1) |
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A Special Nucleotide-polymerizing Enzyme Synthesizes Short RNA Primer Molecules |
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260 | (1) |
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Special Proteins Help to Open Up the DNA Double Helix in Front of the Replication Fork |
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261 | (1) |
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A Sliding Ring Holds a Moving DNA Polymerase onto the DNA |
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262 | (1) |
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The Proteins at a Replication Fork Cooperate to Form a Replication Machine |
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263 | (2) |
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DNA Replication Is Fundamentally Similar in Eukaryotes and Bacteria |
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265 | (2) |
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A Strand-directed Mismatch Repair System Removes Replication Errors That Remain in the Wake of the Replication Machine |
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267 | (2) |
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The Accidental Incorporation of Ribonucleotides During DNA Replication Is Corrected |
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269 | (1) |
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DNA Topoisomerases Prevent DNA Tangling During Replication |
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269 | (3) |
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272 | (1) |
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The Initiation and Completion of DNA Replication in Chromosomes |
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272 | (12) |
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DNA Synthesis Begins at Replication Origins |
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272 | (1) |
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Bacterial Chromosomes Typically Have a Single Origin of DNA Replication |
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273 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic Chromosomes Contain Multiple ORIGINS of Replication |
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273 | (3) |
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In Eukaryotes, DNA Replication Takes Place During Only One Part of the Cell Cycle |
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276 | (1) |
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Eukaryotic ORIGINS of Replication Are "Licensed" for Replication by the Assembly of an Origin Recognition Complex |
|
|
276 | (1) |
|
Features of the Human Genome That Specify ORIGINS of Replication Remain to Be Fully Understood |
|
|
277 | (1) |
|
Properties of the ORC Ensure That Each Region of the DNA Is Replicated Once and Only Once in Each S Phase |
|
|
277 | (2) |
|
New Nucleosomes Are Assembled Behind the Replication Fork |
|
|
279 | (1) |
|
Termination of DNA Replication Occurs Through the Ordered Disassembly of the Replication Fork |
|
|
280 | (1) |
|
Telomerase Replicates the Ends of Chromosomes |
|
|
281 | (1) |
|
Telomeres Are Packaged into Specialized Structures That Protect the Ends of Chromosomes |
|
|
282 | (1) |
|
Telomere Length Is Regulated by Cells and Organisms |
|
|
282 | (2) |
|
|
|
284 | (1) |
|
|
|
284 | (12) |
|
Without DNA Repair, Spontaneous DNA Damage Would Rapidly Change DNA Sequences |
|
|
286 | (2) |
|
The DNA Double Helix Is Readily Repaired |
|
|
288 | (1) |
|
DNA Damage Can Be Removed by More Than One Pathway |
|
|
288 | (2) |
|
Coupling Nucleotide Excision Repair to Transcription Ensures That the Cell's Most Important DNA Is Efficiently Repaired |
|
|
290 | (1) |
|
The Chemistry of the DNA Bases Facilitates Damage Detection |
|
|
290 | (2) |
|
Special Translesion DNA Polymerases Are Used in Emergencies |
|
|
292 | (1) |
|
Double-Strand Breaks Are Efficiently Repaired |
|
|
292 | (3) |
|
DNA Damage Delays Progression of the Cell Cycle |
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
|
|
295 | (1) |
|
|
|
296 | (10) |
|
Homologous Recombination Has Common Features in All Cells |
|
|
296 | (1) |
|
DNA Base-pairing Guides Homologous Recombination |
|
|
296 | (1) |
|
Homologous Recombination Can Flawlessly Repair Double-Strand Breaks in DNA |
|
|
297 | (1) |
|
Specialized Processing of Double-Strand Breaks Commits Repair to Homologous Recombination |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
Strand Exchange Is Directed by the RecA/Rad51 Protein |
|
|
298 | (1) |
|
Homologous Recombination Can Rescue Broken and Stalled DNA Replication Forks |
|
|
299 | (1) |
|
DNA Repair by Homologous Recombination Entails Risks to the Cell |
|
|
300 | (1) |
|
Homologous Recombination Is Crucial for Meiosis |
|
|
301 | (1) |
|
Meiotic Recombination Begins with a Programmed Double-Strand Break |
|
|
302 | (1) |
|
Holliday Junctions Are Recognized by Enzymes That Drive Branch Migration |
|
|
302 | (2) |
|
Homologous Recombination Produces Crossovers Between Maternal and Paternal Chromosomes During Meiosis |
|
|
304 | (1) |
|
Homologous Recombination Often Results in Gene Conversion |
|
|
305 | (1) |
|
|
|
306 | (1) |
|
Transposition And Conservative Site-Specific Recombination |
|
|
306 | (15) |
|
Through Transposition, Mobile Genetic Elements Can Insert into Any DNA Sequence |
|
|
307 | (1) |
|
DNA-only Transposons Can Move by a Cut-and-Paste Mechanism |
|
|
307 | (2) |
|
Some DNA-only Transposons Move by Replicating Themselves |
|
|
309 | (1) |
|
Some Viruses Use a Transposition Mechanism to Move Themselves into Host-Cell Chromosomes |
|
|
309 | (2) |
|
Some RNA Viruses Replicate and Express Their Genomes Without Using DNA as an Intermediate |
|
|
311 | (2) |
|
Retroviral-like Retrotransposons Resemble Retroviruses, but Cannot Move from Cell to Cell |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
A Large Fraction of the Human Genome Is Composed of Nonretroviral Retrotransposons |
|
|
313 | (1) |
|
Different Transposable Elements Predominate in Different Organisms |
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
Genome Sequences Reveal the Approximate Times at Which Transposable Elements Have Moved |
|
|
314 | (1) |
|
Conservative Site-specific Recombination Can Reversibly Rearrange DNA |
|
|
315 | (1) |
|
Conservative Site-specific Recombination Can Be Used to Turn Genes On or Off |
|
|
316 | (1) |
|
Bacterial Conservative Site-specific Recombinases Have Become Powerful Tools for Cell and Developmental Biologists |
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
|
|
317 | (1) |
|
|
|
318 | (2) |
|
|
|
320 | (1) |
|
Chapter 6 How Cells Read the Genome: From DNA to Protein |
|
|
321 | (76) |
|
|
|
323 | (35) |
|
RNA Molecules Are Single-Stranded |
|
|
324 | (1) |
|
Transcription Produces RNA Complementary to One Strand of DNA |
|
|
325 | (1) |
|
RNA Polymerases Carry Out DNA Transcription |
|
|
325 | (2) |
|
Cells Produce Different Categories of RNA Molecules |
|
|
327 | (1) |
|
Signals Encoded in DNA Tell RNA Polymerase Where to Start and Stop |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
Bacterial Transcription Start and Stop Signals Are Heterogeneous in Nucleotide Sequence |
|
|
329 | (2) |
|
Transcription Initiation in Eukaryotes Requires Many Proteins |
|
|
331 | (1) |
|
To Initiate Transcription, RNA Polymerase II Requires a Set of General Transcription Factors |
|
|
332 | (2) |
|
In Eukaryotes, Transcription Initiation Also Requires Activator, Mediator, and Chromatin-modifying Proteins |
|
|
334 | (1) |
|
Transcription Elongation in Eukaryotes Requires Accessory Proteins |
|
|
335 | (1) |
|
Transcription Creates Superhelical Tension |
|
|
335 | (2) |
|
Transcription Elongation in Eukaryotes Is Tightly Coupled to RNA Processing |
|
|
337 | (1) |
|
RNA Capping Is the First Modification of Eukaryotic Pre-mRNAs |
|
|
338 | (1) |
|
RNA Splicing Removes Intron Sequences from Newly Transcribed Pre-mRNAs |
|
|
339 | (2) |
|
Nucleotide Sequences Signal Where Splicing Occurs |
|
|
341 | (1) |
|
RNA Splicing Is Performed by the Spliceosome |
|
|
341 | (2) |
|
The Spliceosome Uses ATP Hydrolysis to Produce a Complex Series of RNA-RNA Rearrangements |
|
|
343 | (2) |
|
Other Properties of Pre-mRNA and Its Synthesis Help to Explain the Choice of Proper Splice Sites |
|
|
345 | (1) |
|
RNA Splicing Has Remarkable Plasticity |
|
|
346 | (1) |
|
Spliceosome-catalyzed RNA Splicing Evolved from RNA Self-splicing Mechanisms |
|
|
347 | (1) |
|
RNA-processing Enzymes Generate the 3' End of Eukaryotic mRNAs |
|
|
348 | (1) |
|
Mature Eukaryotic mRNAs Are Selectively Exported from the Nucleus |
|
|
349 | (2) |
|
Noncoding RNAs Are Also Synthesized and Processed in the Nucleus |
|
|
351 | (2) |
|
The Nucleolus Is a Ribosome-producing Factory |
|
|
353 | (2) |
|
The Nucleus Contains a Variety of Subnuclear Biomolecular Condensates |
|
|
355 | (2) |
|
|
|
357 | (1) |
|
|
|
358 | (31) |
|
An mRNA Sequence Is Decoded in Sets of Three Nucleotides |
|
|
358 | (1) |
|
tRNA Molecules Match Amino Acids to Codons in mRNA |
|
|
359 | (2) |
|
tRNAs Are Covalently Modified Before They Exit from the Nucleus |
|
|
361 | (1) |
|
Specific Enzymes Couple Each Amino Acid to Its Appropriate tRNA Molecule |
|
|
361 | (2) |
|
Editing by tRNA Synthetases Ensures Accuracy |
|
|
363 | (1) |
|
Amino Acids Are Added to the C-terminal End of a Growing Polypeptide Chain |
|
|
364 | (1) |
|
The RNA Message Is Decoded in Ribosomes |
|
|
365 | (3) |
|
Elongation Factors Drive Translation Forward and Improve Its Accuracy |
|
|
368 | (1) |
|
Induced Fit and Kinetic Proofreading Help Biological Processes Overcome the Inherent Limitations of Complementary Base-Pairing |
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
Accuracy in Translation Requires a Large Expenditure of Free Energy |
|
|
370 | (1) |
|
The Ribosome Is a Ribozyme |
|
|
371 | (2) |
|
Nucleotide Sequences in mRNA Signal Where to Start Protein Synthesis |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
Stop Codons Mark the End of Translation |
|
|
374 | (1) |
|
Proteins Are Made on Polyribosomes |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
There Are Minor Variations in the Standard Genetic Code |
|
|
375 | (1) |
|
Inhibitors of Prokaryotic Protein Synthesis Are Useful as Antibiotics |
|
|
376 | (2) |
|
Quality-Control Mechanisms Act to Prevent Translation of Damaged mRNAs |
|
|
378 | (1) |
|
Stalled Ribosomes Can Be Rescued |
|
|
379 | (1) |
|
The Ribosome Coordinates the Folding, Enzymatic Modification, and Assembly of Newly Synthesized Proteins |
|
|
380 | (1) |
|
Molecular Chaperones Help Guide the Folding of Most Proteins |
|
|
380 | (3) |
|
Proper Folding of Newly Synthesized Proteins Is Also Aided by Translation Speed and Subunit Assembly |
|
|
383 | (1) |
|
Proteins That Ultimately Fail to Fold Correctly Are Marked for Destruction by Polyubiquitin |
|
|
384 | (1) |
|
The Proteasome Is a Compartmentalized Protease with Sequestered Active Sites |
|
|
384 | (2) |
|
Many Proteins Are Controlled by Regulated Destruction |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
There Are Many Steps from DNA to Protein |
|
|
387 | (1) |
|
|
|
388 | (1) |
|
The RNA World and the Origins of Life |
|
|
389 | (8) |
|
Single-Strand RNA Molecules Can Fold into Highly Elaborate Structures |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
Ribozymes Can Be Produced in the Laboratory |
|
|
390 | (1) |
|
RNA Can Both Store Information and Catalyze Chemical Reactions |
|
|
391 | (1) |
|
How Did Protein Synthesis Evolve? |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
All Present-Day Cells Use DNA as Their Hereditary Material |
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
|
|
393 | (1) |
|
|
|
394 | (1) |
|
|
|
395 | (2) |
|
Chapter 7 Control of Gene Expression |
|
|
397 | (78) |
|
An Overview Of Gene Control |
|
|
397 | (5) |
|
The Different Cell Types of a Multicellular Organism Contain the Same DNA |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
Different Cell Types Synthesize Different Sets of RNAs and Proteins |
|
|
398 | (2) |
|
The Spectrum of mRNAs Present in a Cell Can Be Used to Accurately Identify the Cell Type |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
External Signals Can Cause a Cell to Change the Expression of Its Genes |
|
|
400 | (1) |
|
Gene Expression Can Be Regulated at Many of the Steps in the Pathway from DNA to RNA to Protein |
|
|
401 | (1) |
|
|
|
402 | (1) |
|
Control Of Transcription By Sequence-Specific Dna-Binding Proteins |
|
|
402 | (8) |
|
The Sequence of Nucleotides in the DNA Double Helix Can Be Read by Proteins |
|
|
402 | (1) |
|
Transcription Regulators Contain Structural Motifs That Can Read DNA Sequences |
|
|
403 | (3) |
|
Dimerization of Transcription Regulators Increases Their Affinity and Specificity for DNA |
|
|
406 | (1) |
|
Many Transcription Regulators Bind Cooperatively to DNA |
|
|
407 | (1) |
|
Nucleosome Structure Promotes Cooperative Binding of Transcription Regulators |
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
DNA-Binding by Transcription Regulators Is Dynamic |
|
|
409 | (1) |
|
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
Transcription Regulators Switch Genes On And Off |
|
|
410 | (13) |
|
The Tryptophan Repressor Switches Genes Off |
|
|
410 | (1) |
|
Repressors Turn Genes Off and Activators Turn Them On |
|
|
411 | (1) |
|
Both an Activator and a Repressor Control the Lac Operon |
|
|
412 | (1) |
|
DNA Looping Can Occur During Bacterial Gene Regulation |
|
|
412 | (2) |
|
Complex Switches Control Gene Transcription in Eukaryotes |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
A Eukaryotic Gene Control Region Includes Many cis-Regulatory Sequences |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
Eukaryotic Transcription Regulators Work in Groups |
|
|
415 | (1) |
|
Activator Proteins Promote the Assembly of RNA Polymerase at the Start Point of Transcription |
|
|
416 | (1) |
|
Eukaryotic Transcription Activators Direct the Modification of Local Chromatin Structure |
|
|
417 | (1) |
|
Some Transcription Activators Work by Releasing Paused RNA Polymerase |
|
|
418 | (1) |
|
Transcription Activators Work Synergistically |
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
Condensate Formation Likely Increases the Efficiency of Transcription Initiation |
|
|
420 | (1) |
|
Eukaryotic Transcription Repressors Can Inhibit Transcription in Several Ways |
|
|
420 | (2) |
|
Insulator DNA Sequences Prevent Eukaryotic Transcription Regulators from Influencing Distant Genes |
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
|
|
422 | (1) |
|
Molecular Genetic Mechanisms that Create and Maintain Specialized Cell Types |
|
|
423 | (12) |
|
Complex Genetic Switches That Regulate Drosophila Development Are Built Up from Smaller Modules |
|
|
423 | (1) |
|
The Drosophila Eve Gene Is Regulated by Combinatorial Controls |
|
|
424 | (2) |
|
Transcription Regulators Are Brought into Play by Extracellular Signals |
|
|
426 | (1) |
|
Combinatorial Gene Control Creates Many Different Cell Types |
|
|
427 | (1) |
|
Specialized Cell Types Can Be Experimentally Reprogrammed to Become Pluripotent Stem Cells |
|
|
428 | (1) |
|
Combinations of Master Transcription Regulators Specify Cell Types by Controlling the Expression of Many Genes |
|
|
429 | (1) |
|
Specialized Cells Must Rapidly Turn Some Genes On and Off |
|
|
430 | (1) |
|
Differentiated Cells Maintain Their Identity |
|
|
431 | (2) |
|
Transcription Circuits Allow the Cell to Carry Out Logic Operations |
|
|
433 | (1) |
|
|
|
434 | (1) |
|
Mechanisms That Reinforce Cell Memory In Plants And Animals |
|
|
435 | (10) |
|
Patterns of DNA Methylation Can Be Inherited When Vertebrate Cells Divide |
|
|
435 | (1) |
|
CG-Rich Islands Are Associated with Many Genes in Mammals |
|
|
436 | (2) |
|
Genomic Imprinting Is Based on DNA Methylation |
|
|
438 | (2) |
|
A Chromosome-wide Alteration in Chromatin Structure Can Be Inherited |
|
|
440 | (2) |
|
The Mammalian X-Inactivation in Females Is Triggered by the Synthesis of a Long Noncoding RNA |
|
|
442 | (1) |
|
Stable Patterns of Gene Expression Can Be Transmitted to Daughter Cells |
|
|
443 | (2) |
|
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
Post-Transcriptional Controls |
|
|
445 | (17) |
|
Transcription Attenuation Causes the Premature Termination of Some RNA Molecules |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
Riboswitches Probably Represent Ancient Forms of Gene Control |
|
|
446 | (1) |
|
Alternative RNA Splicing Can Produce Different Forms of a Protein from the Same Gene |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
The Definition of a Gene Has Been Modified Since the Discovery of Alternative RNA Splicing |
|
|
448 | (1) |
|
Back Splicing Can Produce Circular RNA Molecules |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
A Change in the Site of RNA Transcript Cleavage and Poly-A Addition Can Change the C-terminus of a Protein |
|
|
449 | (1) |
|
Nucleotides in mRNA Can Be Covalently Modified |
|
|
450 | (1) |
|
RNA Editing Can Change the Meaning of the RNA Message |
|
|
451 | (1) |
|
The Human AIDS Virus Illustrates How RNA Transport from the Nucleus Can Be Regulated |
|
|
452 | (1) |
|
mRNAs Can Be Localized to Specific Regions of the Cytosol |
|
|
453 | (3) |
|
Untranslated Regions of mRNAs Control Their Translation |
|
|
456 | (1) |
|
The Phosphorylation of an Initiation Factor Regulates Protein Synthesis Globally |
|
|
457 | (1) |
|
Initiation at AUG Codons Upstream of the Translation Start Can Regulate Eukaryotic Translation Initiation |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Internal Ribosome Entry Sites Also Provide Opportunities for Translational Control |
|
|
458 | (1) |
|
Changes in mRNA Stability Can Control Gene Expression |
|
|
459 | (2) |
|
Regulation of mRNA Stability Involves P-bodies and Stress Granules |
|
|
461 | (1) |
|
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
Regulation Of Gene Expression By Noncoding Rnas |
|
|
462 | (13) |
|
Small Noncoding RNA Transcripts Regulate Many Animal and Plant Genes Through RNA Interference |
|
|
462 | (1) |
|
miRNAs Regulate mRNA Translation and Stability |
|
|
463 | (1) |
|
RNA Interference Also Serves as a Cell Defense Mechanism |
|
|
464 | (1) |
|
RNA Interference Can Direct Heterochromatin Formation |
|
|
465 | (1) |
|
piRNAs Protect the Germ Line from Transposable Elements |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
RNA Interference Has Become a Powerful Experimental Tool |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
Cells Have Additional Mechanisms to Hold Transposons and Integrated Viral Genomes in Check |
|
|
467 | (1) |
|
Bacteria Use Small Noncoding RNAs to Protect Themselves from Viruses |
|
|
468 | (1) |
|
Long Noncoding RNAs Have Diverse Functions in the Cell |
|
|
469 | (2) |
|
|
|
471 | (1) |
|
|
|
472 | (2) |
|
|
|
474 | (1) |
|
Chapter 8 Analyzing Cells, Molecules, and Systems |
|
|
475 | (88) |
|
Isolating Cells and Growing Them In Culture |
|
|
476 | (4) |
|
Cells Can Be Isolated from Tissues and Grown in Culture |
|
|
476 | (2) |
|
Eukaryotic Cell Lines Are a Widely Used Source of Homogeneous Cells |
|
|
478 | (1) |
|
Hybridoma Cell Lines Are Factories That Produce Monoclonal Antibodies |
|
|
478 | (2) |
|
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
|
|
480 | (7) |
|
Cells Can Be Separated into Their Component Fractions |
|
|
480 | (2) |
|
Cell Extracts Provide Accessible Systems to Study Cell Functions |
|
|
482 | (1) |
|
Proteins Can Be Separated by Chromatography |
|
|
483 | (3) |
|
Immunoprecipitation Is a Rapid Affinity Purification Method |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
Genetically Engineered Tags Provide an Easy Way to Purify Proteins |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
Purified Cell-free Systems Are Required for the Precise Dissection of Molecular Functions |
|
|
486 | (1) |
|
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
|
|
487 | (11) |
|
Proteins Can Be Separated by SDS Polyacrylamide-Gel Electrophoresis |
|
|
487 | (2) |
|
Two-dimensional Gel Electrophoresis Provides Greater Protein Separation |
|
|
489 | (1) |
|
Specific Proteins Can Be Detected by Blotting with Antibodies |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
Hydrodynamic Measurements Reveal the Size and Shape of a Protein Complex |
|
|
490 | (1) |
|
Mass Spectrometry Provides a Highly Sensitive Method for Identifying Unknown Proteins |
|
|
491 | (2) |
|
Sets of Interacting Proteins Can Be Identified by Biochemical Methods |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
Optical Methods Can Monitor Protein Interactions |
|
|
493 | (1) |
|
Protein Structure Can Be Determined Using X-ray Diffraction |
|
|
494 | (2) |
|
NMR Can Be Used to Determine Protein Structure in Solution |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Protein Sequence and Structure Provide Clues About Protein Function |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Analyzing And Manipulating Dna |
|
|
498 | (20) |
|
Restriction Nucleases Cut Large DNA Molecules into Specific Fragments |
|
|
498 | (1) |
|
Gel Electrophoresis Separates DNA Molecules of Different Sizes |
|
|
499 | (2) |
|
Purified DNA Molecules Can Be Specifically Labeled with Radioisotopes or Chemical Markers in Vitro |
|
|
501 | (1) |
|
Genes Can Be Cloned Using Bacteria |
|
|
501 | (2) |
|
An Entire Genome Can Be Represented in a DNA Library |
|
|
503 | (2) |
|
Hybridization Provides a Powerful but Simple Way to Detect Specific Nucleotide Sequences |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
Genes Can Be Cloned in Vitro Using PCR |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
PCR Is Also Used for Diagnostic and Forensic Applications |
|
|
507 | (3) |
|
PCR and Synthetic DNA Are Ideal Sources of Specific Gene Sequences for Cloning |
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
DNA Cloning Allows Any Protein to Be Produced in Large Amounts |
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
DNA Can Be Sequenced Rapidly by Dideoxy Sequencing |
|
|
512 | (2) |
|
Next-Generation Sequencing Methods Have Revolutionized DNA and RNA Analysis |
|
|
514 | (2) |
|
To Be Useful, Genome Sequences Must Be Annotated |
|
|
516 | (2) |
|
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
Studying Gene Function And Expression |
|
|
518 | (24) |
|
Classical Genetic Screens Identify Random Mutants with Specific Abnormalities |
|
|
519 | (3) |
|
Mutations Can Cause Loss or Gain of Protein Function |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
Complementation Tests Reveal Whether Two Mutations Are in the Same Gene or Different Genes |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Gene Products Can Be Ordered in Pathways by Epistasis Analysis |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Mutations Responsible for a Phenotype Can Be Identified Through DNA Analysis |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Rapid and Cheap DNA Sequencing Has Revolutionized Human Genetic Studies |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Linked Blocks of Polymorphisms Have Been Passed Down from Our Ancestors |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
Sequence Variants Can Aid the Search for Mutations Associated with Disease |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
Genomics Is Accelerating the Discovery of Rare Mutations That Predispose Us to Serious Disease |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
The Cellular Functions of a Known Gene Can Be Studied with Genome Engineering |
|
|
527 | (1) |
|
Animals and Plants Can Be Genetically Altered |
|
|
528 | (2) |
|
The Bacterial CRISPR System Has Been Adapted to Edit Genomes in a Wide Variety of Species |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
Large Collections of Engineered Mutations Provide a Tool for Examining the Function of Every Gene in an Organism |
|
|
531 | (2) |
|
RNA Interference Is a Simple and Rapid Way to Test Gene Function |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Reporter Genes Reveal When and Where a Gene Is Expressed |
|
|
534 | (1) |
|
In Situ Hybridization Can Reveal the Location of mRNAs and Noncoding RNAs |
|
|
535 | (1) |
|
Expression of Individual Genes Can Be Measured Using Quantitative RT-PCR |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
Global Analysis of mRNAs by RNA-seq Provides a Snapshot of Gene Expression |
|
|
536 | (2) |
|
Genome-wide Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Identifies Sites on the Genome Occupied by Transcription Regulators |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
Ribosome Profiling Reveals Which mRNAs Are Being Translated in the Cell |
|
|
538 | (1) |
|
Recombinant DNA Methods Have Revolutionized Human Health |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
Transgenic Plants Are Important for Agriculture |
|
|
540 | (2) |
|
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
Mathematical Analysis of Cell Function |
|
|
542 | (21) |
|
Regulatory Networks Depend on Molecular Interactions |
|
|
543 | (2) |
|
Differential Equations Help Us Predict Transient Behavior |
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
Promoter Activity and Protein Degradation Affect the Rate of Change of Protein Concentration |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
The Time Required to Reach Steady State Depends on Protein Lifetime |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
Quantitative Methods Are Similar for Transcription Repressors and Activators |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
Negative Feedback Is a Powerful Strategy in Cell Regulation |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
Delayed Negative Feedback Can Induce Oscillations |
|
|
549 | (2) |
|
DNA Binding by a Repressor or an Activator Can Be Cooperative |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
Positive Feedback Is Important for Switchlike Responses and Bistability |
|
|
551 | (2) |
|
Robustness Is an Important Characteristic of Biological Networks |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
Two Transcription Regulators That Bind to the Same Gene Promoter Can Exert Combinatorial Control |
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
An Incoherent Feed-forward Interaction Generates Pulses |
|
|
555 | (1) |
|
A Coherent Feed-forward Interaction Detects Persistent Inputs |
|
|
556 | (1) |
|
The Same Network Can Behave Differently in Different Cells Because of Stochastic Effects |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
Several Computational Approaches Can Be Used to Model the Reactions in Cells |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
Statistical Methods Are Critical for the Analysis of Biological Data |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
|
559 | (2) |
|
|
|
561 | (2) |
|
Chapter 9 Visualizing Cells and Their Molecules |
|
|
563 | (40) |
|
Looking at Cells and Molecules in the Light Microscope |
|
|
563 | (25) |
|
The Conventional Light Microscope Can Resolve Details 0.2 μm Apart |
|
|
564 | (3) |
|
Photon Noise Creates Additional Limits to Resolution When Light Levels Are Low |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
Living Cells Are Seen Clearly in a Phase-Contrast or a Differential-Interference-Contrast Microscope |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
Images Can Be Enhanced and Analyzed by Digital Techniques |
|
|
568 | (1) |
|
Intact Tissues Are Usually Fixed and Sectioned Before Microscopy |
|
|
569 | (1) |
|
Specific Molecules Can Be Located in Cells by Fluorescence Microscopy |
|
|
570 | (2) |
|
Antibodies Can Be Used to Detect Specific Proteins |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
Individual Proteins Can Be Fluorescently Tagged in Living Cells and Organisms |
|
|
573 | (2) |
|
Protein Dynamics Can Be Followed in Living Cells |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Fluorescent Biosensors Can Monitor Cell Signaling |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
Imaging of Complex Three-dimensional Objects Is Possible with the Optical Microscope |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
The Confocal Microscope Produces Optical Sections by Excluding Out-of-Focus Light |
|
|
578 | (2) |
|
Superresolution Fluorescence Techniques Can Overcome Diffraction-limited Resolution |
|
|
580 | (3) |
|
Single-Molecule Localization Microscopy Also Delivers Superresolution |
|
|
583 | (2) |
|
Expanding the Specimen Can Offer Higher Resolution, but with a Conventional Microscope |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Large Multicellular Structures Can Be Imaged Over Time |
|
|
586 | (1) |
|
Single Molecules Can Be Visualized by Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
Looking At Cells And Molecules In The Electron Microscope |
|
|
588 | (15) |
|
The Electron Microscope Resolves the Fine Structure of the Cell |
|
|
588 | (1) |
|
Biological Specimens Require Special Preparation for Electron Microscopy |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
Heavy Metals Can Provide Additional Contrast |
|
|
590 | (1) |
|
Images of Surfaces Can Be Obtained by Scanning Electron Microscopy |
|
|
591 | (2) |
|
Electron Microscope Tomography Allows the Molecular Architecture of Cells to Be Seen in Three Dimensions |
|
|
593 | (2) |
|
Cryo-electron Microscopy Can Determine Molecular Structures at Atomic Resolution |
|
|
595 | (2) |
|
Light Microscopy and Electron Microscopy Are Mutually Beneficial |
|
|
597 | (1) |
|
Using Microscopy to Study Cells Always Involves Trade-Offs |
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
|
|
600 | (1) |
|
|
|
601 | (2) |
|
Chapter 10 Membrane Structure |
|
|
603 | (34) |
|
|
|
604 | (11) |
|
Glycerophospholipids, Sphingolipids, and Sterols Are the Major Lipids in Cell Membranes |
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
Phospholipids Spontaneously Form Bilayers |
|
|
606 | (2) |
|
The Lipid Bilayer Is a Two-dimensional Fluid |
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
The Fluidity of a Lipid Bilayer Depends on Its Composition |
|
|
609 | (1) |
|
Despite Their Fluidity, Lipid Bilayers Can Form Domains of Different Compositions |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
Lipid Droplets Are Surrounded by a Phospholipid Monolayer |
|
|
611 | (1) |
|
The Asymmetry of the Lipid Bilayer Is Functionally Important |
|
|
612 | (1) |
|
Glycolipids Are Found on the Surface of All Eukaryotic Plasma Membranes |
|
|
613 | (1) |
|
|
|
614 | (1) |
|
|
|
615 | (22) |
|
Membrane Proteins Can Be Associated with the Lipid Bilayer in Various Ways |
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
Lipid Anchors Control the Membrane Localization of Some Signaling Proteins |
|
|
616 | (1) |
|
In Most Transmembrane Proteins, the Polypeptide Chain Crosses the Lipid Bilayer in an α-Helical Conformation |
|
|
617 | (2) |
|
Transmembrane α Helices Often Interact with One Another |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Some β Barrels Form Large Channels |
|
|
619 | (2) |
|
Many Membrane Proteins Are Glycosylated |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
Membrane Proteins Can Be Solubilized and Purified in Detergents |
|
|
622 | (3) |
|
Bacteriorhodopsin Is a Light-driven Proton (H+) Pump That Traverses the Lipid Bilayer as Seven a Helices |
|
|
625 | (2) |
|
Membrane Proteins Often Function as Large Complexes |
|
|
627 | (1) |
|
Many Membrane Proteins Diffuse in the Plane of the Membrane |
|
|
627 | (2) |
|
Cells Can Confine Proteins and Lipids to Specific Domains Within a Membrane |
|
|
629 | (1) |
|
The Cortical Cytoskeleton Gives Membranes Mechanical Strength and Restricts Membrane Protein Diffusion |
|
|
630 | (2) |
|
Membrane-bending Proteins Deform Bilayers |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
|
|
634 | (1) |
|
|
|
635 | (2) |
|
Chapter 11 Small-Molecule Transport and Electrical Properties of Membranes |
|
|
637 | (46) |
|
Principles Of Membrane Transport |
|
|
637 | (3) |
|
Protein-free Lipid Bilayers Are Impermeable to Ions |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
There Are Two Main Classes of Membrane Transport Proteins: Transporters and Channels |
|
|
638 | (1) |
|
Active Transport Is Mediated by Transporters Coupled to an Energy Source |
|
|
639 | (1) |
|
|
|
640 | (1) |
|
Transporters and Active Membrane Transport |
|
|
640 | (11) |
|
Active Transport Can Be Driven by Ion-Concentration Gradients |
|
|
642 | (2) |
|
Transporters in the Plasma Membrane Regulate Cytosolic pH |
|
|
644 | (1) |
|
An Asymmetric Distribution of Transporters in Epithelial Cells Underlies the Transcellular Transport of Solutes |
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
There Are Three Classes of ATP-driven Pumps |
|
|
646 | (1) |
|
A P-type ATPase Pumps Ca2+ into the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in Muscle Cells |
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
The Plasma Membrane Na+-K+ Pump Establishes Na+ and K+ Gradients Across the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
ABC Transporters Constitute the Largest Family of Membrane Transport Proteins |
|
|
649 | (2) |
|
|
|
651 | (1) |
|
Channels and the Electrical Properties of Membranes |
|
|
651 | (32) |
|
Aquaporins Are Permeable to Water but Impermeable to Ions |
|
|
652 | (1) |
|
Ion Channels Are Ion-selective and Fluctuate Between Open and Closed States |
|
|
653 | (2) |
|
The Membrane Potential in Animal Cells Depends Mainly on K+ Leak Channels and the K+ Gradient Across the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
655 | (1) |
|
The Resting Potential Decays Only Slowly When the Na+-K+ Pump Is Stopped |
|
|
655 | (2) |
|
The Three-dimensional Structure of a Bacterial K+ Channel Shows How an Ion Channel Can Work |
|
|
657 | (2) |
|
Mechanosensitive Channels Allow Cells to Sense Their Physical Environment |
|
|
659 | (2) |
|
The Function of a Neuron Depends on Its Elongated Structure |
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
Voltage-gated Cation Channels Generate Action Potentials in Electrically Excitable Cells |
|
|
662 | (4) |
|
Myelination Increases the Speed and Efficiency of Action Potential Propagation in Nerve Cells |
|
|
666 | (1) |
|
Patch-Clamp Recording Indicates That Individual Ion Channels Open in an AII-or-Nothing Fashion |
|
|
666 | (2) |
|
Voltage-gated Cation Channels Are Evolutionarily and Structurally Related |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
Different Neuron Types Display Characteristic Stable Firing Properties |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
Transmitter-gated Ion Channels Convert Chemical Signals into Electrical Ones at Chemical Synapses |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
Chemical Synapses Can Be Excitatory or Inhibitory |
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
The Acetylcholine Receptors at the Neuromuscular Junction Are Excitatory Transmitter-gated Cation Channels |
|
|
671 | (1) |
|
Neurons Contain Many Types of Transmitter-gated Channels |
|
|
672 | (1) |
|
Many Psychoactive Drugs Act at Synapses |
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
Neuromuscular Transmission Involves the Sequential Activation of Five Different Sets of Ion Channels |
|
|
673 | (1) |
|
Single Neurons Are Complex Computation Devices |
|
|
674 | (1) |
|
Neuronal Computation Requires a Combination of at Least Three Kinds of K+ Channels |
|
|
675 | (2) |
|
Long-term Potentiation in the Mammalian Hippocampus Depends on Ca2+ Entry Through NMDA-Receptor Channels |
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
The Use of Channelrhodopsins Has Revolutionized the Study of Neural Circuits |
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
|
|
679 | (1) |
|
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
|
|
681 | (2) |
|
Chapter 12 Intracellular Organization and Protein Sorting |
|
|
683 | (66) |
|
The Compartmentalization of Cells |
|
|
683 | (15) |
|
All Eukaryotic Cells Have the Same Basic Set of Membrane-enclosed Organelles |
|
|
683 | (3) |
|
Evolutionary ORIGINS Explain the Topological Relationships of Organelles |
|
|
686 | (2) |
|
Macromolecules Can Be Segregated Without a Surrounding Membrane |
|
|
688 | (2) |
|
Multivalent Interactions Mediate Formation of Biomolecular Condensates |
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
Biomolecular Condensates Create Biochemical Factories |
|
|
690 | (3) |
|
Biomolecular Condensates Form and Disassemble in Response to Need |
|
|
693 | (1) |
|
Proteins Can Move Between Compartments in Different Ways |
|
|
694 | (1) |
|
Sorting Signals and Sorting Receptors Direct Proteins to the Correct Cell Address |
|
|
695 | (2) |
|
Construction of Most Organelles Requires Information in the Organelle Itself |
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
The Endoplasmic Reticulum |
|
|
698 | (25) |
|
The ER Is Structurally and Functionally Diverse |
|
|
698 | (3) |
|
Signal Sequences Were First Discovered in Proteins Imported into the Rough ER |
|
|
701 | (1) |
|
A Signal-Recognition Particle (SRP) Directs the ER Signal Sequence to a Specific Receptor at the ER |
|
|
702 | (3) |
|
The Polypeptide Chain Passes Through a Signal Sequence-gated Aqueous Channel in the Translocator |
|
|
705 | (2) |
|
Translocation Across the ER Membrane Does Not Always Require Ongoing Polypeptide Chain Elongation |
|
|
707 | (2) |
|
Transmembrane Proteins Contain Hydrophobic Segments That Are Recognized Like Signal Sequences |
|
|
709 | (1) |
|
Hydrophobic Segments of Multipass Transmembrane Proteins Are Interpreted Contextually to Determine Their Orientation |
|
|
710 | (1) |
|
Some Proteins Are Integrated into the ER Membrane by a Post-translational Mechanism |
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
Some Membrane Proteins Acquire a Covalently Attached Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) Anchor |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Translocated Polypeptide Chains Fold and Assemble in the Lumen of the Rough ER |
|
|
712 | (2) |
|
Most Proteins Synthesized in the Rough ER Are Glycosylated by the Addition of a Common N-Linked Oligosaccharide |
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
Oligosaccharides Are Used as Tags to Mark the State of Protein Folding |
|
|
715 | (1) |
|
Improperly Folded Proteins Are Exported from the ER and Degraded in the Cytosol |
|
|
716 | (1) |
|
Misfolded Proteins in the ER Activate an Unfolded Protein Response |
|
|
717 | (3) |
|
The ER Assembles Most Lipid Bilayers |
|
|
720 | (2) |
|
Membrane Contact Sites Between the ER and Other Organelles Facilitate Selective Lipid Transfer |
|
|
722 | (1) |
|
|
|
723 | (1) |
|
|
|
723 | (3) |
|
Peroxisomes Use Molecular Oxygen and Hydrogen Peroxide to Perform Oxidation Reactions |
|
|
724 | (1) |
|
Short Signal Sequences Direct the Import of Proteins into Peroxisomes |
|
|
724 | (2) |
|
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
The Transport Of Proteins Into Mitochondria And Chloropu\Sts |
|
|
726 | (9) |
|
Translocation into Mitochondria Depends on Signal Sequences and Protein Translocators |
|
|
727 | (1) |
|
Mitochondrial Proteins Are Imported Post-translationally as Unfolded Polypeptide Chains |
|
|
728 | (2) |
|
Protein Import Is Powered by ATP Hydrolysis, a Membrane Potential, and Redox Potential |
|
|
730 | (1) |
|
Transport into the Inner Mitochondrial Membrane Occurs Via Several Routes |
|
|
731 | (2) |
|
Bacteria and Mitochondria Use Similar Mechanisms to Insert B Barrels into Their Outer Membrane |
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
Two Signal Sequences Direct Proteins to the Thylakoid Membrane in Chloroplasts |
|
|
733 | (2) |
|
|
|
735 | (1) |
|
The Transport Of Molecules Between The Nucleus And The Cytosol |
|
|
735 | (14) |
|
Nuclear Pore Complexes Perforate the Nuclear Envelope |
|
|
736 | (2) |
|
Nuclear Localization Signals Direct Proteins to the Nucleus |
|
|
738 | (1) |
|
Nuclear Import Receptors Bind to Both Nuclear Localization Signals and NPC Proteins |
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
The Ran GTPase Imposes Directionality on Nuclear Import Through NPCs |
|
|
740 | (1) |
|
Nuclear Export Works Like Nuclear Import, but in Reverse |
|
|
741 | (1) |
|
Transport Through NPCs Can Be Regulated by Controlling Access to the Transport Machinery |
|
|
742 | (1) |
|
The Nuclear Envelope Disassembles and Reassembles During Mitosis |
|
|
743 | (2) |
|
|
|
745 | (1) |
|
|
|
746 | (2) |
|
|
|
748 | (1) |
|
Chapter 13 Intracellular Membrane Traffic |
|
|
749 | (62) |
|
Mechanisms Of Membrane Transport And Compartment Identity |
|
|
751 | (14) |
|
There Are Various Types of Coated Vesicles |
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
The Assembly of a Clathrin Coat Drives Vesicle Formation |
|
|
752 | (1) |
|
Adaptor Proteins Select Cargo into Clathrin-coated Vesicles |
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
Phosphoinositides Mark Organelles and Membrane Domains |
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
Membrane-bending Proteins Help Deform the Membrane During Vesicle Formation |
|
|
755 | (1) |
|
Cytoplasmic Proteins Regulate the Pinching off and Uncoating of Coated Vesicles |
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
Monomeric GTPases Control Coat Assembly |
|
|
756 | (2) |
|
Coat-recruitment GTPases Participate in Coat Disassembly |
|
|
758 | (1) |
|
The Shape and Size of Transport Vesicles Are Diverse |
|
|
759 | (1) |
|
Rab Proteins Guide Transport Vesicles to Their Target Membrane |
|
|
760 | (1) |
|
Rab Proteins Create and Change the Identity of an Organelle |
|
|
761 | (1) |
|
SNAREs Mediate Membrane Fusion |
|
|
762 | (1) |
|
Interacting SNAREs Need to Be Pried Apart Before They Can Function Again |
|
|
763 | (1) |
|
Viruses Encode Specialized Membrane Fusion Proteins Needed for Cell Entry |
|
|
764 | (1) |
|
|
|
764 | (1) |
|
Transport From The Endoplasmic Reticulum Through The Golgi Apparatus |
|
|
765 | (11) |
|
Proteins Leave the ER in COPII-coated Transport Vesicles |
|
|
765 | (1) |
|
Only Proteins That Are Properly Folded and Assembled Can Leave the ER |
|
|
766 | (1) |
|
Vesicular Tubular Clusters Mediate Transport from the ER to the Golgi Apparatus |
|
|
766 | (2) |
|
The Retrieval Pathway to the ER Uses Sorting Signals |
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
Many Proteins Are Selectively Retained in the Compartments in Which They Function |
|
|
768 | (1) |
|
The Golgi Apparatus Consists of an Ordered Series of Compartments |
|
|
769 | (2) |
|
Oligosaccharide Chains Are Processed in the Golgi Apparatus |
|
|
771 | (1) |
|
Proteoglycans Are Assembled in the Golgi Apparatus |
|
|
772 | (1) |
|
What Is the Purpose of Glycosylation? |
|
|
773 | (1) |
|
Transport Through the Golgi Apparatus Occurs by Multiple Mechanisms |
|
|
774 | (1) |
|
Golgi Matrix Proteins Help Organize the Stack |
|
|
775 | (1) |
|
|
|
776 | (1) |
|
Transport From The Trans Golgi Network To The Cell Exterior And Endosomes |
|
|
776 | (12) |
|
Many Proteins and Lipids Are Carried Automatically from the Trans Golgi Network to the Cell Surface |
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
A Mannose 6-Phosphate Receptor Sorts Lysosomal Hydrolases in the Trans Golgi Network |
|
|
777 | (2) |
|
Defects in the GlcNAc Phosphotransferase Cause a Lysosomal Storage Disease in Humans |
|
|
779 | (1) |
|
Secretory Vesicles Bud from the Trans Golgi Network |
|
|
780 | (1) |
|
Precursors of Secretory Proteins Are Proteolytically Processed During the Formation of Secretory Vesicles |
|
|
781 | (1) |
|
Secretory Vesicles Wait Near the Plasma Membrane Until Signaled to Release Their Contents |
|
|
782 | (1) |
|
For Rapid Exocytosis, Synaptic Vesicles Are Primed at the Presynaptic Plasma Membrane |
|
|
782 | (1) |
|
Synaptic Vesicles Can Be Recycled Locally After Exocytosis |
|
|
783 | (1) |
|
Secretory Vesicle Membrane Components Are Quickly Removed from the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
784 | (1) |
|
Some Regulated Exocytosis Events Serve to Enlarge the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
785 | (1) |
|
Polarized Cells Direct Proteins from the Trans Golgi Network to the Appropriate Domain of the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
786 | (1) |
|
|
|
787 | (1) |
|
Transport Into The Cell From The Plasma Membrane: Endocytosis |
|
|
788 | (10) |
|
Pinocytic Vesicles Form from Coated Pits in the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
789 | (1) |
|
Not All Membrane Invaginations and Pinocytic Vesicles Are Clathrin Coated |
|
|
789 | (2) |
|
Cells Use Receptor-mediated Endocytosis to Import Selected Extracellular Macromolecules |
|
|
791 | (1) |
|
Specific Proteins Are Retrieved from Early Endosomes and Returned to the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
792 | (1) |
|
Recycling Endosomes Regulate Plasma Membrane Composition |
|
|
793 | (1) |
|
Plasma Membrane Signaling Receptors Are Down-regulated by Degradation in Lysosomes |
|
|
794 | (1) |
|
Early Endosomes Mature into Late Endosomes |
|
|
795 | (1) |
|
ESCRT Protein Complexes Mediate the Formation of Intraluminal Vesicles in Multivesicular Bodies |
|
|
796 | (2) |
|
|
|
798 | (1) |
|
The Degradation And Recycling Of Macromolecules In Lysosomes |
|
|
798 | (13) |
|
Lysosomes Are the Principal Sites of Intracellular Digestion |
|
|
798 | (1) |
|
Lysosomes Are Heterogeneous |
|
|
799 | (1) |
|
Plant and Fungal Vacuoles Are Remarkably Versatile Lysosomes |
|
|
800 | (1) |
|
Multiple Pathways Deliver Materials to Lysosomes |
|
|
801 | (1) |
|
Cells Can Acquire Nutrients from the Extracellular Fluid by Macropinocytosis |
|
|
802 | (1) |
|
Specialized Phagocytic Cells Can Ingest Large Particles |
|
|
802 | (1) |
|
Cargo Recognition by Cell-surface Receptors Initiates Phagocytosis |
|
|
803 | (1) |
|
Autophagy Degrades Unwanted Proteins and Organelles |
|
|
804 | (1) |
|
The Rate of Nonselective Autophagy Is Regulated by Nutrient Availability |
|
|
805 | (1) |
|
A Family of Cargo-specific Receptors Mediates Selective Autophagy |
|
|
806 | (1) |
|
Some Lysosomes and Multivesicular Bodies Undergo Exocytosis |
|
|
807 | (1) |
|
|
|
807 | (1) |
|
|
|
808 | (2) |
|
|
|
810 | (1) |
|
Chapter 14 Energy Conversion and Metabolic Compartmentation: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts |
|
|
811 | (62) |
|
|
|
813 | (10) |
|
The Mitochondrion Has an Outer Membrane and an Inner Membrane |
|
|
814 | (1) |
|
Fission, Fusion, Distribution, and Degradation of Mitochondria |
|
|
815 | (2) |
|
The Inner Membrane Cristae Contain the Machinery for Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis |
|
|
817 | (1) |
|
The Citric Acid Cycle in the Matrix Produces NADH |
|
|
817 | (1) |
|
Mitochondria Have Many Essential Roles in Cellular Metabolism |
|
|
818 | (3) |
|
A Chemiosmotic Process Couples Oxidation Energy to ATP Production |
|
|
821 | (1) |
|
The Energy Derived from Oxidation Is Stored as an Electrochemical Gradient |
|
|
822 | (1) |
|
|
|
823 | (1) |
|
The Proton Pumps Of The Electron-Transport Chain |
|
|
823 | (12) |
|
The Redox Potential Is a Measure of Electron Affinities |
|
|
823 | (1) |
|
Electron Transfers Release Large Amounts of Energy |
|
|
824 | (1) |
|
Transition Metal Ions and Quinones Accept and Release Electrons Readily |
|
|
824 | (3) |
|
NADH Transfers Its Electrons to Oxygen Through Three Large Enzyme Complexes Embedded in the Inner Membrane |
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
The NADH Dehydrogenase Complex Contains Separate Modules for Electron Transport and Proton Pumping |
|
|
828 | (1) |
|
Cytochrome c Reductase Takes Up and Releases Protons on Opposite Sides of the Crista Membrane, Thereby Pumping Protons |
|
|
829 | (2) |
|
The Cytochrome c Oxidase Complex Pumps Protons and Reduces O2 Using a Catalytic Iron-Copper Center |
|
|
831 | (1) |
|
Succinate Dehydrogenase Acts in Both the Electron-Transport Chain and the Citric Acid Cycle |
|
|
832 | (1) |
|
The Respiratory Chain Forms a Supercomplex in the Crista Membrane |
|
|
833 | (1) |
|
Protons Can Move Rapidly Through Proteins Along Predefined Pathways |
|
|
834 | (1) |
|
|
|
835 | (1) |
|
ATP Production In Mitochondria |
|
|
835 | (8) |
|
The Large Negative Value of ΔG for ATP Hydrolysis Makes ATP Useful to the Cell |
|
|
835 | (2) |
|
The ATP Synthase Is a Nanomachine That Produces ATP by Rotary Catalysis |
|
|
837 | (2) |
|
Proton-driven Turbines Are Ancient and Critical for Energy Conversion |
|
|
839 | (1) |
|
Mitochondrial Cristae Help to Make ATP Synthesis Efficient |
|
|
840 | (1) |
|
Special Transport Proteins Move Solutes Through the Inner Membrane |
|
|
841 | (1) |
|
Chemiosmotic Mechanisms First Arose in Bacteria |
|
|
842 | (1) |
|
|
|
842 | (1) |
|
Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis |
|
|
843 | (18) |
|
Chloroplasts Resemble Mitochondria but Have a Separate Thylakoid Compartment |
|
|
843 | (1) |
|
Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight and Use It to Fix Carbon |
|
|
844 | (1) |
|
Carbon Fixation Uses ATP and NADPH to Convert CO2 into Sugars |
|
|
845 | (1) |
|
Carbon Fixation in Some Plants Is Compartmentalized to Facilitate Growth at Low CO2 Concentrations |
|
|
846 | (3) |
|
The Sugars Generated by Carbon Fixation Can Be Stored as Starch or Consumed to Produce ATP |
|
|
849 | (1) |
|
The Thylakoid Membranes of Chloroplasts Contain the Protein Complexes Required for Photosynthesis and ATP Generation |
|
|
849 | (1) |
|
Chlorophyll-Protein Complexes Can Transfer Either Excitation Energy or Electrons |
|
|
850 | (1) |
|
A Photosystem Contains Chlorophylls in Antennae and a Reaction Center |
|
|
851 | (1) |
|
The Thylakoid Membrane Contains Two Different Photosystems Working in Series |
|
|
852 | (1) |
|
Photosystem II Uses a Manganese Cluster to Withdraw Electrons from Water |
|
|
853 | (1) |
|
The Cytochrome be-f Complex Connects Photosystem II to Photosystem I |
|
|
854 | (1) |
|
Photosystem I Carries Out the Second Charge-Separation Step in the Z Scheme |
|
|
855 | (1) |
|
The Chloroplast ATP Synthase Uses the Proton Gradient Generated by the Photosynthetic Light Reactions to Produce ATP |
|
|
855 | (1) |
|
The Proton-Motive Force for ATP Production in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Is Essentially the Same |
|
|
856 | (1) |
|
Chemiosmotic Mechanisms Evolved in Stages |
|
|
856 | (1) |
|
By Providing an Inexhaustible Source of Reducing Power, Photosynthetic Bacteria Overcame a Major Evolutionary Obstacle |
|
|
857 | (1) |
|
The Photosynthetic Electron-Transport Chains of Cyanobacteria Produced Atmospheric Oxygen and Permitted New Life-Forms |
|
|
857 | (3) |
|
|
|
860 | (1) |
|
The Genetic Systems Of Mitochondria And Chloroplasts |
|
|
861 | (12) |
|
The Genetic Systems of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Resemble Those of Prokaryotes |
|
|
861 | (1) |
|
Over Time, Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Have Exported Most of Their Genes to the Nucleus by Gene Transfer |
|
|
862 | (2) |
|
Mitochondria Have a Relaxed Codon Usage and Can Have a Variant Genetic Code |
|
|
864 | (1) |
|
Chloroplasts and Bacteria Share Many Striking Similarities |
|
|
865 | (1) |
|
Organellar Genes Are Maternally Inherited in Animals and Plants |
|
|
866 | (1) |
|
Mutations in Mitochondrial DNA Can Cause Severe Inherited Diseases |
|
|
866 | (1) |
|
Why Do Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Maintain a Costly Separate System for DNA Transcription and Translation? |
|
|
867 | (1) |
|
|
|
868 | (1) |
|
|
|
869 | (2) |
|
|
|
871 | (2) |
|
Chapter 15 Cell Signaling |
|
|
873 | (76) |
|
Principles of Cell Signaling |
|
|
873 | (19) |
|
Extracellular Signals Can Act Over Short or Long Distances |
|
|
874 | (1) |
|
Extracellular Signal Molecules Bind to Specific Receptors |
|
|
875 | (1) |
|
Each Cell Is Programmed to Respond to Specific Combinations of Extracellular Signals |
|
|
876 | (2) |
|
There Are Three Major Classes of Cell-Surface Receptor Proteins |
|
|
878 | (1) |
|
Cell-Surface Receptors Relay Signals Via Intracellular Signaling Molecules |
|
|
879 | (2) |
|
Intracellular Signals Must Be Specific and Robust in a Noisy Cytoplasm |
|
|
881 | (1) |
|
Intracellular Signaling Complexes Form at Activated Cell-Surface Receptors |
|
|
882 | (1) |
|
Modular Interaction Domains Mediate Interactions Between Intracellular Signaling Proteins |
|
|
883 | (2) |
|
The Relationship Between Signal and Response Varies in Different Signaling Pathways |
|
|
885 | (1) |
|
The Speed of a Response Depends on the Turnover of Signaling Molecules |
|
|
886 | (1) |
|
Cells Can Respond Abruptly to a Gradually Increasing Signal |
|
|
887 | (1) |
|
Positive Feedback Can Generate an All-or-None Response |
|
|
888 | (2) |
|
Negative Feedback Is a Common Feature of Intracellular Signaling Systems |
|
|
890 | (1) |
|
Cells Can Adjust Their Sensitivity to a Signal |
|
|
890 | (2) |
|
|
|
892 | (1) |
|
Signaling Through G-Protein-Coupled Receptors |
|
|
892 | (19) |
|
Heterotrimeric G Proteins Relay Signals from GPCRs |
|
|
893 | (2) |
|
Some G Proteins Regulate the Production of Cyclic AMP |
|
|
895 | (1) |
|
Cyclic-AMP-dependent Protein Kinase (PKA) Mediates Most of the Effects of Cyclic AMP |
|
|
896 | (2) |
|
Some G Proteins Signal Via Phospholipids |
|
|
898 | (1) |
|
Ca2+ Functions as a Ubiquitous Intracellular Mediator |
|
|
899 | (1) |
|
Feedback Generates Ca2+ Waves and Oscillations |
|
|
900 | (2) |
|
Ca2+/Calmodulin-dependent Protein Kinases Mediate Many Responses to Ca2+ Signals |
|
|
902 | (2) |
|
Some G Proteins Directly Regulate Ion Channels |
|
|
904 | (1) |
|
Smell and Vision Depend on GPCRs That Regulate Ion Channels |
|
|
905 | (3) |
|
Nitric Oxide Gas Can Mediate Signaling Between Cells |
|
|
908 | (1) |
|
Second Messengers and Enzymatic Cascades Amplify Signals |
|
|
909 | (1) |
|
GPCR Desensitization Depends on Receptor Phosphorylation |
|
|
909 | (1) |
|
|
|
910 | (1) |
|
Signaling Through Enzyme-Coupled Receptors |
|
|
911 | (17) |
|
Activated Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs) Phosphorylate Themselves |
|
|
911 | (2) |
|
Phosphorylated Tyrosines on RTKs Serve as Docking Sites for Intracellular Signaling Proteins |
|
|
913 | (1) |
|
Proteins with SH2 Domains Bind to Phosphorylated Tyrosines |
|
|
913 | (2) |
|
The Monomeric GTPase Ras Mediates Signaling by Most RTKs |
|
|
915 | (1) |
|
Ras Activates a MAP Kinase Signaling Module |
|
|
916 | (2) |
|
Scaffold Proteins Reduce Cross-Talk Between Different MAP Kinase Modules |
|
|
918 | (1) |
|
Rho Family GTPases Functionally Couple Cell-Surface Receptors to the Cytoskeleton |
|
|
919 | (1) |
|
PI 3-Kinase Produces Lipid Docking Sites in the Plasma Membrane |
|
|
920 | (1) |
|
The PI-3-Kinase-Akt Signaling Pathway Stimulates Animal Cells to Survive and Grow |
|
|
921 | (2) |
|
RTKs and GPCRs Activate Overlapping Signaling Pathways |
|
|
923 | (1) |
|
Some Enzyme-coupled Receptors Associate with Cytoplasmic Tyrosine Kinases |
|
|
923 | (1) |
|
Cytokine Receptors Activate the JAK-STAT Signaling Pathway |
|
|
924 | (2) |
|
Extracellular Signal Proteins of the TGFβ Superfamily Act Through Receptor Serine/Threonine Kinases and Smads |
|
|
926 | (1) |
|
|
|
927 | (1) |
|
Alternative Signaling Routes In Gene Regulation |
|
|
928 | (12) |
|
The Receptor Notch Is a Latent Transcription Regulator |
|
|
928 | (2) |
|
Wnt Proteins Activate Frizzled and Thereby Inhibit β-Catenin Degradation |
|
|
930 | (2) |
|
Hedgehog Proteins Initiate a Complex Signaling Pathway in the Primary Cilium |
|
|
932 | (2) |
|
Many Inflammatory and Stress Signals Act Through an NFKB-dependent Signaling Pathway |
|
|
934 | (1) |
|
Nuclear Receptors Are Ligand-modulated Transcription Regulators |
|
|
935 | (2) |
|
Circadian Clocks Use Negative Feedback Loops to Control Gene Expression |
|
|
937 | (1) |
|
Three Purified Proteins Can Reconstitute a Cyanobacterial Circadian Clock in a Test Tube |
|
|
938 | (1) |
|
|
|
939 | (1) |
|
|
|
940 | (9) |
|
Multicellularity and Cell Communication Evolved Independently in Plants and Animals |
|
|
940 | (1) |
|
Receptor Serine/Threonine Kinases Are the Largest Class of Cell-Surface Receptors in Plants |
|
|
941 | (1) |
|
Ethylene Blocks the Degradation of Specific Transcription Regulatory Proteins in the Nucleus |
|
|
941 | (2) |
|
Regulated Positioning of Auxin Transporters Patterns Plant Growth |
|
|
943 | (1) |
|
Phytochromes Detect Red Light, and Cryptochromes Detect Blue Light |
|
|
944 | (1) |
|
|
|
945 | (1) |
|
|
|
946 | (2) |
|
|
|
948 | (1) |
|
Chapter 16 The Cytoskeleton |
|
|
949 | (78) |
|
Function and Dynamics of the Cytoskeleton |
|
|
949 | (8) |
|
Cytoskeletal Filaments Are Dynamic, but Can Nevertheless Form Stable Structures |
|
|
951 | (1) |
|
The Cytoskeleton Determines Cellular Organization and Polarity |
|
|
952 | (1) |
|
Filaments Assemble from Protein Subunits That Impart Specific Physical and Dynamic Properties |
|
|
953 | (2) |
|
Accessory Proteins and Motors Act on Cytoskeletal Filaments |
|
|
955 | (1) |
|
Molecular Motors Operate in a Cellular Environment Dominated by Brownian Motion |
|
|
956 | (1) |
|
|
|
957 | (1) |
|
|
|
957 | (19) |
|
Actin Subunits Assemble Head-to-Tail to Create Flexible, Polar Filaments |
|
|
958 | (1) |
|
Nucleation Is the Rate-limiting Step in the Formation of Actin Filaments |
|
|
958 | (4) |
|
Actin Filaments Have Two Distinct Ends That Grow at Different Rates |
|
|
962 | (1) |
|
ATP Hydrolysis Within Actin Filaments Leads to Treadmilling at Steady State |
|
|
962 | (1) |
|
The Functions of Actin Filaments Are Inhibited by Both Polymer-stabilizing and Polymer-destabilizing Chemicals |
|
|
963 | (1) |
|
Actin-binding Proteins Influence Filament Dynamics and Organization |
|
|
964 | (1) |
|
Actin Nucleation Is Tightly Regulated and Generates Branched or Straight Filaments |
|
|
964 | (3) |
|
Actin Filament Elongation Is Regulated by Monomer-binding Proteins |
|
|
967 | (1) |
|
Actin Filament-binding Proteins Alter Filament Dynamics and Organization |
|
|
968 | (2) |
|
Severing Proteins Regulate Actin Filament Depolymerization |
|
|
970 | (1) |
|
Bacteria Can Hijack the Host Actin Cytoskeleton |
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
Actin at the Cell Cortex Determines Cell Shape |
|
|
971 | (1) |
|
Distinct Modes of Cell Migration Rely on the Actin Cytoskeleton |
|
|
972 | (2) |
|
Cells Migrating in Three Dimensions Can Navigate Around Barriers |
|
|
974 | (1) |
|
|
|
975 | (1) |
|
|
|
976 | (11) |
|
Actin-based Motor Proteins Are Members of the Myosin Superfamily |
|
|
976 | (1) |
|
Myosin Generates Force by Coupling ATP Hydrolysis to Conformational Changes |
|
|
977 | (1) |
|
Sliding of Myosin II Along Actin Filaments Causes Muscles to Contract |
|
|
977 | (4) |
|
A Sudden Rise in Cytosolic Ca2+ Concentration Initiates Muscle Contraction |
|
|
981 | (3) |
|
Heart Muscle Is a Precisely Engineered Machine |
|
|
984 | (1) |
|
Actin and Myosin Perform a Variety of Functions in Non-Muscle Cells |
|
|
984 | (2) |
|
|
|
986 | (1) |
|
|
|
987 | (20) |
|
Microtubules Are Hollow Tubes Made of Protofilaments |
|
|
988 | (1) |
|
Microtubules Undergo a Process Called Dynamic Instability |
|
|
988 | (3) |
|
Microtubule Functions Are Inhibited by Both Polymer-stabilizing and Polymer-destabilizing Drugs |
|
|
991 | (1) |
|
A Protein Complex Containing γ-Tubulin Nucleates Microtubules |
|
|
991 | (1) |
|
The Centrosome Is a Prominent Microtubule Nucleation Site |
|
|
991 | (2) |
|
Microtubule Organization Varies Widely Among Cell Types |
|
|
993 | (2) |
|
Microtubule-binding Proteins Modulate Filament Dynamics and Organization |
|
|
995 | (1) |
|
Microtubule Plus End-binding Proteins Modulate Microtubule Dynamics and Attachments |
|
|
996 | (2) |
|
Tubulin-sequestering and Microtubule-severing Proteins Modulate Microtubule Dynamics |
|
|
998 | (1) |
|
Two Types of Motor Proteins Move Along Microtubules |
|
|
999 | (3) |
|
Microtubules and Motors Move Organelles and Vesicles |
|
|
1002 | (2) |
|
Motile Cilia and Flagella Are Built from Microtubules and Dyneins |
|
|
1004 | (1) |
|
Primary Cilia Perform Important Signaling Functions in Animal Cells |
|
|
1005 | (1) |
|
|
|
1006 | (1) |
|
Intermediate Filaments and Other Cytoskeletal Polymers |
|
|
1007 | (9) |
|
Intermediate Filament Structure Depends on the Lateral Bundling and Twisting of Coiled-Coils |
|
|
1007 | (2) |
|
Intermediate Filaments Impart Mechanical Stability to Animal Cells |
|
|
1009 | (2) |
|
Linker Proteins Connect Cytoskeletal Filaments and Bridge the Nuclear Envelope |
|
|
1011 | (1) |
|
Septins Form Filaments That Contribute to Subcellular Organization |
|
|
1012 | (1) |
|
Bacterial Cell Shape and Division Depend on Homologs of Eukaryotic Cytoskeletal Proteins |
|
|
1013 | (3) |
|
|
|
1016 | (1) |
|
Cell Polarity and Coordination of the Cytoskeleton |
|
|
1016 | (11) |
|
Cell Polarity Is Governed by Small GTPases in Budding Yeast |
|
|
1016 | (2) |
|
PAR Proteins Generate Anterior-Posterior Polarity in Embryos |
|
|
1018 | (1) |
|
Conserved Complexes Polarize Epithelial Cells and Control Their Growth |
|
|
1019 | (1) |
|
Cell Migration Requires Dynamic Cell Polarity |
|
|
1020 | (2) |
|
External Signals Can Dictate the Direction of Cell Migration |
|
|
1022 | (1) |
|
Communication Among Cytoskeletal Elements Supports Whole-Cell Polarity and Locomotion |
|
|
1023 | (1) |
|
|
|
1023 | (1) |
|
|
|
1024 | (1) |
|
|
|
1025 | (2) |
|
Chapter 17 The Cell Cycle |
|
|
1027 | (62) |
|
Overview of the Cell Cycle |
|
|
1027 | (4) |
|
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Usually Consists of Four Phases |
|
|
1028 | (2) |
|
Cell-Cycle Control Is Similar in All Eukaryotes |
|
|
1030 | (1) |
|
Cell-Cycle Progression Can Be Studied in Various Ways |
|
|
1030 | (1) |
|
|
|
1031 | (1) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System |
|
|
1031 | (11) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System Triggers the Major Events of the Cell Cycle |
|
|
1032 | (1) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System Depends on Cyclically Activated Cyclin-dependent Protein Kinases |
|
|
1033 | (2) |
|
Protein Phosphatases Reverse the Effects of Cdks |
|
|
1035 | (1) |
|
Hundreds of Cdk Substrates Are Phosphorylated in a Defined Order |
|
|
1035 | (1) |
|
Positive Feedback Generates the Switchlike Behavior of Cell-Cycle Transitions |
|
|
1036 | (2) |
|
The Anaphase-promoting Complex/Cyclosome (APC/C) Triggers the Metaphase-to-Anaphase Transition |
|
|
1038 | (2) |
|
The G1 Phase Is a Stable State of Cdk Inactivity |
|
|
1040 | (1) |
|
The Cell-Cycle Control System Functions as a Linked Series of Biochemical Switches |
|
|
1041 | (1) |
|
|
|
1042 | (1) |
|
|
|
1042 | (4) |
|
S-Cdk Initiates DNA Replication Once Per Cell Cycle |
|
|
1043 | (2) |
|
Chromosome Duplication Requires Duplication of Chromatin Structure |
|
|
1045 | (1) |
|
Cohesins Hold Sister Chromatids Together |
|
|
1045 | (1) |
|
|
|
1046 | (1) |
|
|
|
1046 | (18) |
|
M-Cdk and Other Protein Kinases Drive Entry into Mitosis |
|
|
1047 | (1) |
|
Condensin Helps Configure Duplicated Chromosomes for Separation |
|
|
1047 | (3) |
|
The Mitotic Spindle Is a Dynamic Microtubule-based Machine |
|
|
1050 | (1) |
|
Microtubules Are Nucleated in Multiple Regions of the Spindle |
|
|
1051 | (1) |
|
Microtubule Instability Increases Greatly in Mitosis |
|
|
1052 | (1) |
|
Microtubule-based Motor Proteins Govern Spindle Assembly and Function |
|
|
1052 | (1) |
|
Bipolar Spindle Assembly in Most Animal Cells Begins with Centrosome Duplication |
|
|
1053 | (1) |
|
Spindle Assembly in Animal Cells Requires Nuclear-Envelope Breakdown |
|
|
1054 | (1) |
|
Mitotic Chromosomes Promote Bipolar Spindle Assembly |
|
|
1055 | (1) |
|
Kinetochores Attach Sister Chromatids to the Spindle |
|
|
1056 | (1) |
|
Bi-orientation Is Achieved by Trial and Error |
|
|
1057 | (2) |
|
Multiple Forces Act on Chromosomes in the Spindle |
|
|
1059 | (1) |
|
The APC/C Triggers Sister-Chromatid Separation and the Completion of Mitosis |
|
|
1060 | (2) |
|
Unattached Chromosomes Block Sister-Chromatid Separation: The Spindle Assembly Checkpoint |
|
|
1062 | (1) |
|
Chromosomes Segregate in Anaphase A and B |
|
|
1062 | (1) |
|
Segregated Chromosomes Are Packaged in Daughter Nuclei at Telophase |
|
|
1063 | (1) |
|
|
|
1064 | (1) |
|
|
|
1064 | (7) |
|
Actin and Myosin II in the Contractile Ring Guide the Process of Cytokinesis |
|
|
1065 | (1) |
|
Local Activation of RhoA Triggers Assembly and Contraction of the Contractile Ring |
|
|
1065 | (1) |
|
The Microtubules of the Mitotic Spindle Determine the Plane of Animal Cell Division |
|
|
1066 | (2) |
|
The Phragmoplast Guides Cytokinesis in Higher Plants |
|
|
1068 | (1) |
|
Membrane-enclosed Organelles Must Be Distributed to Daughter Cells During Cytokinesis |
|
|
1069 | (1) |
|
Some Cells Reposition Their Spindle to Divide Asymmetrically |
|
|
1069 | (1) |
|
Mitosis Can Occur Without Cytokinesis |
|
|
1070 | (1) |
|
|
|
1070 | (1) |
|
|
|
1071 | (6) |
|
Meiosis Includes Two Rounds of Chromosome Segregation |
|
|
1071 | (2) |
|
Duplicated Homologs Pair During Meiotic Prophase |
|
|
1073 | (1) |
|
Homolog Pairing Culminates in the Formation of a Synaptonemal Complex |
|
|
1073 | (2) |
|
Homolog Segregation Depends on Several Unique Features of Meiosis I |
|
|
1075 | (1) |
|
Crossing-Over Is Highly Regulated |
|
|
1076 | (1) |
|
Meiosis Frequently Goes Wrong |
|
|
1077 | (1) |
|
|
|
1077 | (1) |
|
Control Of Cell Division and Cell Growth |
|
|
1077 | (12) |
|
Mitogens Stimulate Cell Division |
|
|
1078 | (1) |
|
Cells Can Enter a Specialized Nondividing State |
|
|
1078 | (1) |
|
Mitogens Stimulate Gi-Cdk and G1/S-Cdk Activities |
|
|
1079 | (1) |
|
DNA Damage Blocks Cell Division |
|
|
1080 | (2) |
|
Many Human Cells Have a Built-in Limitation on the Number of Times They Can Divide |
|
|
1082 | (1) |
|
Cell Proliferation Is Accompanied by Cell Growth |
|
|
1083 | (1) |
|
Proliferating Cells Usually Coordinate Their Growth and Division |
|
|
1084 | (1) |
|
|
|
1084 | (1) |
|
|
|
1085 | (2) |
|
|
|
1087 | (2) |
|
|
|
1089 | (16) |
|
Apoptosis Eliminates Unwanted Cells |
|
|
1090 | (1) |
|
Apoptosis Depends on an Intracellular Proteolytic Cascade Mediated by Caspases |
|
|
1091 | (2) |
|
Activation of Cell-Surface Death Receptors Initiates the Extrinsic Pathway of Apoptosis |
|
|
1093 | (1) |
|
The Intrinsic Pathway of Apoptosis Depends on Proteins Released from Mitochondria |
|
|
1094 | (1) |
|
Bcl2 Proteins Are the Critical Controllers of the Intrinsic Pathway of Apoptosis |
|
|
1095 | (3) |
|
An Inhibitor of Apoptosis (an IAP) and Two Anti-IAP Proteins Help Control Caspase Activation in the Cytosol of Some Mammalian Cells |
|
|
1098 | (1) |
|
Extracellular Survival Factors Inhibit Apoptosis in Various Ways |
|
|
1098 | (2) |
|
Healthy Neighbors Phagocytose and Digest Apoptotic Cells |
|
|
1100 | (1) |
|
Either Excessive or Insufficient Apoptosis Can Contribute to Disease |
|
|
1100 | (2) |
|
|
|
1102 | (1) |
|
|
|
1103 | (1) |
|
|
|
1104 | (1) |
|
Chapter 19 Cell Junctions and the Extracellular Matrix |
|
|
1105 | (58) |
|
|
|
1108 | (19) |
|
Cadherins Form a Diverse Family of Adhesion Molecules |
|
|
1108 | (1) |
|
Cadherins Mediate Homophilic Adhesion |
|
|
1108 | (2) |
|
Cadherin-dependent Cell--Cell Adhesion Guides the Organization of Developing Tissues |
|
|
1110 | (2) |
|
Assembly of Strong Cell--Cell Adhesions Requires Changes in the Actin Cytoskeleton |
|
|
1112 | (1) |
|
Catenins Link Classical Cadherins to the Actin Cytoskeleton |
|
|
1113 | (1) |
|
Adherens Junctions Respond to Tension from Inside and Outside the Tissue |
|
|
1113 | (1) |
|
Tissue Remodeling Depends on the Coordination of Actin-mediated Contraction with Cell--Cell Adhesion |
|
|
1114 | (2) |
|
Desmosomes Give Epithelia Mechanical Strength |
|
|
1116 | (1) |
|
Tight Junctions Form a Seal Between Cells and a Fence Between Plasma Membrane Domains |
|
|
1116 | (3) |
|
Tight Junctions Contain Strands of Transmembrane Adhesion Proteins |
|
|
1119 | (1) |
|
Scaffold Proteins Organize Junctional Protein Complexes |
|
|
1120 | (1) |
|
Gap Junctions Couple Cells Both Electrically and Metabolically |
|
|
1121 | (1) |
|
A Gap-Junction Connexon Is Made of Six Transmembrane Connexin Subunits |
|
|
1122 | (1) |
|
In Plants, Plasmodesmata Perform Many of the Same Functions as Gap Junctions |
|
|
1123 | (2) |
|
Selectins Mediate Transient Cell--Cell Adhesions in the Bloodstream |
|
|
1125 | (1) |
|
Members of the Immunoglobulin Superfamily Mediate Ca2+-independent Cell--Cell Adhesion |
|
|
1126 | (1) |
|
|
|
1127 | (1) |
|
The Extracellular Matrix Of Animals |
|
|
1127 | (20) |
|
The Extracellular Matrix Is Made and Oriented by the Cells Within It |
|
|
1128 | (1) |
|
Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) Chains Occupy Large Amounts of Space and Form Hydrated Gels |
|
|
1129 | (1) |
|
Hyaluronan Acts as a Space Filler During Tissue Morphogenesis and Repair |
|
|
1129 | (1) |
|
Proteoglycans Are Composed of GAG Chains Covalently Linked to a Core Protein |
|
|
1130 | (2) |
|
Collagens Are the Major Proteins of the Extracellular Matrix |
|
|
1132 | (1) |
|
Collagen Chains Undergo a Series of Post-translational Modifications |
|
|
1133 | (2) |
|
Secreted Fibril-associated Collagens Help Organize the Fibrils |
|
|
1135 | (1) |
|
Elastin Gives Tissues Their Elasticity |
|
|
1136 | (1) |
|
Cells Govern and Respond to the Mechanical Properties of the Matrix |
|
|
1137 | (1) |
|
Fibronectin and Other Multidomain Glycoproteins Help Organize the Matrix |
|
|
1138 | (1) |
|
Fibronectin Binds to Integrins |
|
|
1139 | (1) |
|
Tension Exerted by Cells Regulates the Assembly of Fibronectin Fibrils |
|
|
1140 | (1) |
|
The Basal Lamina Is a Specialized Form of Extracellular Matrix |
|
|
1141 | (1) |
|
Laminin and Type IV Collagen Are Major Components of the Basal Lamina |
|
|
1141 | (2) |
|
Basal Laminae Have Diverse Functions |
|
|
1143 | (1) |
|
Cells Have to Be Able to Degrade Matrix, as Well as Make It |
|
|
1144 | (1) |
|
Matrix Proteoglycans and Glycoproteins Regulate the Activities of Secreted Proteins |
|
|
1145 | (1) |
|
|
|
1146 | (1) |
|
|
|
1147 | (7) |
|
Integrins Are Transmembrane Heterodimers That Link the Extracellular Matrix to the Cytoskeleton |
|
|
1147 | (1) |
|
Integrin Defects Are Responsible for Many Genetic Diseases |
|
|
1148 | (1) |
|
Integrins Can Switch Between an Active and an Inactive Conformation |
|
|
1149 | (2) |
|
Integrins Cluster to Form Strong Adhesions |
|
|
1151 | (1) |
|
Extracellular Matrix Attachments Act Through Integrins to Control Cell Proliferation and Survival |
|
|
1151 | (1) |
|
Integrins Recruit Intracellular Signaling Proteins at Sites of Cell-Matrix Adhesion |
|
|
1152 | (1) |
|
Cell-Matrix Adhesions Respond to Mechanical Forces |
|
|
1153 | (1) |
|
|
|
1154 | (1) |
|
|
|
1154 | (9) |
|
The Composition of the Cell Wall Depends on the Cell Type |
|
|
1155 | (1) |
|
The Tensile Strength of the Cell Wall Allows Plant Cells to Develop Turgor Pressure |
|
|
1155 | (1) |
|
The Primary Cell Wall Is Built from Cellulose Microfibrils Interwoven with a Network of Pectic Polysaccharides |
|
|
1156 | (1) |
|
Oriented Cell Wall Deposition Controls Plant Cell Growth |
|
|
1157 | (1) |
|
Microtubules Orient Cell Wall Deposition |
|
|
1158 | (1) |
|
|
|
1159 | (1) |
|
|
|
1160 | (2) |
|
|
|
1162 | (1) |
|
|
|
1163 | (54) |
|
Cancer As A Microevolutionary Process |
|
|
1163 | (15) |
|
Cancer Cells Bypass Normal Proliferation Controls and Colonize Other Tissues |
|
|
1164 | (1) |
|
Most Cancers Derive from a Single Abnormal Cell |
|
|
1165 | (1) |
|
Cancer Cells Contain Somatic Mutations |
|
|
1166 | (1) |
|
A Single Mutation Is Not Enough to Change a Normal Cell into a Cancer Cell |
|
|
1166 | (1) |
|
Many Cancers Develop Gradually Through Successive Rounds of Random Inherited Change Followed by Natural Selection |
|
|
1167 | (1) |
|
Cancers Can Evolve Abruptly Due to Genetic Instability |
|
|
1168 | (2) |
|
Some Cancers May Harbor a Small Population of Stem Cells |
|
|
1170 | (1) |
|
A Common Set of Hallmarks Typically Characterizes Cancerous Growth |
|
|
1171 | (1) |
|
Cancer Cells Display an Altered Control of Growth and Homeostasis |
|
|
1172 | (1) |
|
Human Cancer Cells Escape a Built-in Limit to Cell Proliferation |
|
|
1173 | (1) |
|
Cancer Cells Have an Abnormal Ability to Bypass Death Signals |
|
|
1174 | (1) |
|
Cancer Cells Have Altered Sugar Metabolism |
|
|
1175 | (1) |
|
The Tumor Microenvironment Influences Cancer Development |
|
|
1175 | (1) |
|
Cancer Cells Must Survive and Proliferate in a Foreign Environment |
|
|
1176 | (2) |
|
|
|
1178 | (1) |
|
Cancer-Critical Genes: How They Are Found and What Th Ey Do |
|
|
1178 | (20) |
|
The Identification of Gain-of-Function and Loss-of-Function Cancer Mutations Has Traditionally Required Different Methods |
|
|
1179 | (1) |
|
Retroviruses Led to the Identification of Oncogenes |
|
|
1180 | (1) |
|
Genes Mutated in Cancer Can Be Made Overactive in Many Ways |
|
|
1181 | (1) |
|
Studies of Rare Hereditary Cancer Syndromes First Identified Tumor Suppressor Genes |
|
|
1182 | (1) |
|
Both Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms Can Inactivate Tumor Suppressor Genes |
|
|
1183 | (1) |
|
Systematic Sequencing of Cancer Cell Genomes Has Transformed Our Understanding of the Disease |
|
|
1184 | (1) |
|
Many Cancers Have an Extraordinarily Disrupted Genome |
|
|
1185 | (1) |
|
Epigenetic and Chromatin Changes Contribute to Most Cancers |
|
|
1185 | (1) |
|
Hundreds of Human Genes Contribute to Cancer |
|
|
1186 | (1) |
|
Disruptions in a Handful of Key Pathways Are Common to Many Cancers |
|
|
1187 | (1) |
|
Mutations in the PI 3-kinase/Akt/mTOR Pathway Drive Cancer Cells to Grow |
|
|
1188 | (1) |
|
Mutations in the p53 Pathway Enable Cancer Cells to Survive and Proliferate Despite Stress and DNA Damage |
|
|
1189 | (1) |
|
Studies Using Mice Help to Define the Functions of Cancer-critical Genes |
|
|
1190 | |
