Preface |
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vii | |
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PART I THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK |
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1 | (162) |
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1 Motor Control: Issues and Theories |
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3 | (19) |
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3 | (1) |
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3 | (1) |
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Why Should Therapists Study Motor Control? |
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3 | (1) |
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Understanding the Nature of Movement |
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4 | (3) |
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Individual Systems Underlying Motor Control |
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4 | (1) |
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Task Constraints on Movement Control |
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5 | (1) |
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Environmental Constraints on Movement Control |
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6 | (1) |
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The Control of Movement: Theories of Motor Control |
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7 | (10) |
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Value of Theory to Practice |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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8 | (2) |
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Motor Programming Theories |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (4) |
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15 | (1) |
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Which Theory of Motor Control Is Best? |
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16 | (1) |
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Parallel Development of Clinical Practice and Scientific Theory |
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17 | (2) |
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Neurologic Rehabilitation: Reflex-Based Neurofacilitation Approaches |
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17 | (1) |
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17 | (2) |
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19 | (2) |
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21 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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21 | (1) |
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2 Motor Learning and Recovery of Function |
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22 | (25) |
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Introduction to Motor Learning |
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22 | (1) |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (5) |
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Early Definitions of Motor Learning |
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23 | (1) |
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Broadening the Definition of Motor Learning |
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23 | (1) |
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Relating Performance and Learning |
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23 | (1) |
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Attention and Motor Learning |
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24 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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Basic Forms of Long-Term Memory: Nondeclarative (Implicit) and Declarative (Explicit) |
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24 | (4) |
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Theories of Motor Learning |
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28 | (2) |
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28 | (1) |
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29 | (1) |
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Theories Related to Stages of Learning Motor Skills |
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30 | (4) |
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Fitts and Posner's Three-Stage Model |
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30 | (1) |
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Bernstein's Three-Stage Approach to Motor Learning: Mastering Degrees of Freedom |
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31 | (2) |
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Gentile's Two-Stage Model |
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33 | (1) |
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Stages of Motor Program Formation |
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33 | (1) |
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Practical Applications of Motor Learning Research |
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34 | (6) |
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34 | (1) |
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34 | (2) |
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36 | (4) |
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40 | (5) |
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Concepts Related to Recovery of Function |
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40 | (1) |
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Factors Affecting Recovery of Function |
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40 | (2) |
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Preinjury Neuroprotective Factors |
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42 | (1) |
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43 | (2) |
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45 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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46 | (1) |
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3 Physiology of Motor Control |
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47 | (37) |
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Introduction and Overview |
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47 | (5) |
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Motor Control Theories and Physiology |
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47 | (1) |
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Overview of Brain Function |
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48 | (3) |
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Neuron: The Basic Unit of the CNS |
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51 | (1) |
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Sensory and Perceptual Systems |
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52 | (18) |
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53 | (9) |
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62 | (5) |
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67 | (3) |
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70 | (13) |
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70 | (4) |
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Higher-Level Association Areas |
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74 | (1) |
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74 | (3) |
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77 | (3) |
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Mesencephalon and Brainstem |
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80 | (3) |
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83 | (1) |
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4 Physiological Basis of Motor Learning and Recovery of Function |
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84 | (28) |
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84 | (4) |
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Defining Neural Plasticity |
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85 | (1) |
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85 | (2) |
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Localization of Learning and Memory |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (8) |
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Plasticity and Nondeclarative (Implicit) Forms of Learning |
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88 | (2) |
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Procedural Learning (Skills and Habits) |
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90 | (1) |
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Plasticity and Declarative (Explicit) Forms of Learning |
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90 | (3) |
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The Shift from Implicit to Explicit Knowledge |
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93 | (1) |
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The Shift from Explicit to Implicit Memory |
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93 | (1) |
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Complex Forms of Motor Learning |
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93 | (1) |
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Acquisition of Skill: The Shift to Automaticity |
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94 | (1) |
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Summary of Forms of Learning |
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95 | (1) |
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Neural Plasticity and Recovery of Function |
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96 | (12) |
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96 | (1) |
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Axonal Damage: Effects on Neurons and Neighboring Cells |
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96 | (1) |
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Early Transient Events That Depress Brain Function |
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97 | (1) |
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Axonal Regeneration: Difference in the Peripheral versus Central Nervous Systems |
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98 | (1) |
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98 | (3) |
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Changes in Cortical Maps after Lesions and during Recovery of Function |
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101 | (4) |
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Strategies to Enhance Neural Plasticity and Cortical Reorganization |
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105 | (3) |
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Clinical Implications of Research on Neural Plasticity and Recovery of Function in Acquired Brain Injury |
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108 | (1) |
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Neural Plasticity and Neurodegenerative Disease |
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108 | (3) |
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Neural Plasticity and Parkinson's Disease |
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109 | (1) |
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Clinical Implications of Research on Neural Plasticity and Recovery of Function in PD |
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110 | (1) |
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111 | (1) |
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5 Constraints on Motor Control: An Overview of Neurologic Impairments |
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112 | (34) |
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Introduction: Signs and Symptoms of Pathophysiology of Motor Control |
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112 | (1) |
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Classifying Impairments Associated with Central Nervous System Lesions |
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113 | (1) |
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113 | (1) |
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Positive versus Negative Signs and Symptoms |
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113 | (1) |
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Primary versus Secondary Effects |
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113 | (1) |
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Impairments in the Action Systems |
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114 | (10) |
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114 | (5) |
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Motor Impairments Associated with Subcortical Pathology |
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119 | (4) |
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Secondary Musculoskeletal Impairments |
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123 | (1) |
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Impairments in Sensory Systems |
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124 | (2) |
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124 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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Pathology of Higher-Order Association Cortices: Spatial and Nonspatial Impairments |
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126 | (1) |
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Right Hemisphere Spatial Deficits |
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126 | (1) |
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Right Hemisphere Nonspatial Deficits |
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126 | (1) |
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Clinical Management of Impairments in the Action (Motor) Systems |
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127 | (9) |
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Motor Cortex and Corticospinal Tract Impairments |
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127 | (6) |
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Clinical Management of Cerebellar and Basal Ganglia Impairments |
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133 | (3) |
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Clinical Management of Musculoskeletal Impairments |
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136 | (1) |
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Clinical Management of Impairments in the Sensory Systems |
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136 | (3) |
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Somatosensory Impairments |
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136 | (2) |
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138 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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Clinical Management of Impairments in the Perceptual and Cognitive Systems |
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139 | (6) |
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Spatial Deficits: Hemineglect |
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139 | (3) |
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Nonspatial Cognitive Deficits |
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142 | (3) |
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145 | (1) |
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6 A Conceptual Framework for Clinical Practice |
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146 | (17) |
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146 | (1) |
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Components of a Conceptual*Framework for Clinical Practice |
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147 | (8) |
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147 | (3) |
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Models of Functioning and Disability |
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150 | (3) |
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Hypothesis-Oriented Clinical Practice |
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153 | (1) |
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Theories of Motor Control and Learning |
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154 | (1) |
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Evidence-Based Clinical Practice |
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154 | (1) |
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Applying a Conceptual Framework to Clinical Practice |
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154 | (1) |
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Developing a Personal Conceptual Framework for Clinical Practice |
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155 | (1) |
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Task-Oriented Approach to Examination |
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155 | (4) |
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Examination of Functional Activities and Participation |
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155 | (3) |
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Examination at the Strategy Level |
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158 | (1) |
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Examining Impairments of Body Structure and Function |
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159 | (1) |
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Task-Oriented Approach to Intervention |
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159 | (1) |
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Recovery Versus Compensation |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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161 | (2) |
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163 | (168) |
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7 Normal Postural Control |
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165 | (32) |
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165 | (5) |
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Defining Postural Control |
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166 | (2) |
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A Systems Framework for Postural Control |
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168 | (2) |
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Motor Systems in Postural Control |
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170 | (15) |
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170 | (6) |
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176 | (7) |
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Proactive (Anticipatory) Balance Control |
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183 | (2) |
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Sensory and Perceptual Systems in Postural Control |
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185 | (6) |
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Sensory Inputs for Steady-State Balance |
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185 | (5) |
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Sensory Inputs for Reactive Balance |
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190 | (1) |
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Clinical Applications of Research on Sensory and Perceptual Aspects of Postural Control |
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191 | (1) |
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Cognitive Systems in Postural Control |
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191 | (2) |
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Clinical Applications of Research on Cognitive Aspects of Postural Control |
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193 | (1) |
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Neural Subsystems Controlling Postural Orientation and Stability |
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193 | (2) |
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193 | (1) |
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194 | (1) |
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Basal Ganglia and Cerebellar Contributions |
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195 | (1) |
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195 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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195 | (2) |
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8 Development of Postural Control |
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197 | (25) |
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197 | (2) |
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Postural Control and Development |
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197 | (1) |
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Motor Milestones and Emerging Postural Control |
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198 | (1) |
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Theories of Developing Postural Control |
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199 | (3) |
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Reflex/Hierarchical Theory |
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199 | (1) |
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199 | (3) |
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Development of Postural Control: A Systems Perspective |
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202 | (19) |
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General Movements in Infants |
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202 | (1) |
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202 | (2) |
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Emergence of Independent Sitting |
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204 | (6) |
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Transition to Independent Stance |
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210 | (4) |
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Refinement of Postural Control |
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214 | (6) |
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Cognitive Systems in Postural Development |
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220 | (1) |
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221 | (1) |
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9 Aging and Postural Control |
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222 | (25) |
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222 | (2) |
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Factors Contributing to Aging |
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222 | (1) |
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Interactions between Primary and Secondary Factors |
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223 | (1) |
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223 | (1) |
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Behavioral Indicators of Instability |
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224 | (3) |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (2) |
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Age-Related Changes in the Systems of Postural Control |
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227 | (10) |
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227 | (2) |
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Changes to Steady-State Balance |
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229 | (1) |
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Changes in Reactive Balance Control |
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230 | (7) |
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Aging in the Sensory or Perceptual Systems |
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237 | (4) |
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Changes in Individual Sensory Systems |
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237 | (2) |
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Adapting Senses for Postural Control |
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239 | (2) |
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Cognitive Issues and Posture Control |
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241 | (4) |
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A Case Study Approach to Understanding Age-Related Postural Disorders |
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245 | (1) |
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246 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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246 | (1) |
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10 Abnormal Postural Control |
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247 | (34) |
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247 | (1) |
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Falls in Persons with Neurologic Pathology |
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247 | (1) |
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Problems in the Motor Systems |
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248 | (18) |
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Impaired Steady-State Balance |
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248 | (6) |
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Impaired Reactive Balance |
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254 | (10) |
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Impaired Anticipatory Postural Control |
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264 | (2) |
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Problems in the Sensory/Perceptual Systems |
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266 | (7) |
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Sensory Problems Affecting Steady-State Balance |
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266 | (5) |
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Sensory Problems Affecting Reactive Balance |
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271 | (1) |
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Sensory Problems Affecting Anticipatory Balance |
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272 | (1) |
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Perceptual Problems Affecting Postural Control |
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272 | (1) |
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Clinical Implications of Research on Impaired Sensation/Perceptions and Postural Control |
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273 | (1) |
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Problems in Cognitive Systems |
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273 | (4) |
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Balance and Falls Self-Efficacy |
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273 | (1) |
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Impaired Postural Stability and Dual-Task Interference |
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274 | (3) |
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A Case Study Approach to Understanding Postural Dyscontrol |
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277 | (3) |
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Jean J and Genise T: Postural Problems following Cerebral Vascular Accident |
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277 | (1) |
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Mike M: Postural Problems in Parkinson's Disease |
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278 | (1) |
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John C: Postural Problems in Cerebellar Disorders |
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279 | (1) |
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Thomas L: Postural Problems in Spastic Diplegic CP |
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279 | (1) |
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Malachi: Postural Problems in Severe Athetoid/Spastic CP |
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280 | (1) |
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Sue: Postural Problems in Multiple Sclerosis |
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280 | (1) |
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280 | (1) |
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11 Clinical Management of the Patient with a Postural Control Disorder |
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281 | (50) |
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281 | (2) |
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Conceptual Framework for Balance Rehabilitation |
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282 | (1) |
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283 | (25) |
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Safety---The First Concern |
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283 | (1) |
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Examining the Effect of Balance on Participation |
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283 | (2) |
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Examining Balance in Functional Activities |
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285 | (13) |
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Assessing Strategies for Balance |
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298 | (8) |
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Examination of Underlying Impairments |
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306 | (2) |
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Evaluation: Interpreting the Results of the Examination |
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308 | (1) |
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Task-Oriented Balance Rehabilitation |
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308 | (15) |
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309 | (8) |
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317 | (4) |
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321 | (2) |
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323 | (6) |
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Research Evidence for a Task-Oriented Approach to Balance Rehabilitation |
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325 | (3) |
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Improving Participation---Evidence-Based Fall Prevention |
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328 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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329 | (2) |
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PART III MOBILITY FUNCTIONS |
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331 | (160) |
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12 Control of Normal Mobility |
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333 | (34) |
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333 | (1) |
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Mobility in the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health Framework |
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333 | (1) |
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334 | (16) |
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Essential Requirements of Locomotion: Progression, Postural Control, and Adaptation |
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334 | (1) |
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Characterizing Steady-State Gait |
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335 | (8) |
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Adaptation of Gait: Contributions of Reactive and Proactive Balance Control in Gait |
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343 | (6) |
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349 | (1) |
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Control Mechanisms for Gait |
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350 | (4) |
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Pattern Generators for Gait |
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350 | (2) |
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352 | (1) |
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Musculoskeletal Contributions to Gait |
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353 | (1) |
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Sensory Systems and the Control of Gait |
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354 | (3) |
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354 | (2) |
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356 | (1) |
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357 | (1) |
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Cognitive Systems and Gait |
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357 | (2) |
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Dual-Task Performance during Steady-State Gait |
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357 | (1) |
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Dual-Task Performance during Obstacle Crossing |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (2) |
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360 | (1) |
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360 | (1) |
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Adapting Stair-Walking Patterns to Changes in Sensory Cues |
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360 | (1) |
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361 | (4) |
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Transfers and Bed Mobility |
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361 | (4) |
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365 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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366 | (1) |
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13 Development of Mobility |
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367 | (22) |
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367 | (1) |
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Development of Motor Systems and Gait |
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367 | (17) |
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Development of Steady-State Gait |
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368 | (7) |
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Development of Adaptation |
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375 | (3) |
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Expanding the Repertoire of Steady-State Gait Patterns: Run, Skip, Hop, and Gallop |
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378 | (1) |
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379 | (2) |
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381 | (3) |
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Development of Other Mobility Skills |
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384 | (4) |
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384 | (3) |
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Development of Supine to Stand |
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387 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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388 | (1) |
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389 | (18) |
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389 | (1) |
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Gait Dysfunction: Aging or Pathology? |
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389 | (1) |
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390 | (10) |
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Age-Related Changes in Steady-State Gait |
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390 | (4) |
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Age-Related Changes in Adaptation of Gait: Reactive and Proactive Balance |
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394 | (5) |
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Role of Pathology in Gait Changes in Older Adults |
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399 | (1) |
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Age-Related Changes in Sensory Systems and Gait |
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400 | (1) |
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400 | (1) |
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400 | (1) |
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400 | (1) |
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Age-Related Changes in Cognitive Systems and Gait |
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400 | (3) |
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Age-Related Changes in Dual-Task Performance during Steady-State Gait |
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400 | (1) |
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Age-Related Changes in Dual-Task Performance during Obstacle Crossing |
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401 | (1) |
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Cognitive Influences on Gait: Fear of Falling in Older Adults |
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402 | (1) |
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Age-Related Changes in Other Mobility Skills |
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403 | (1) |
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Gait Initiation and Backward Gait |
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403 | (1) |
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403 | (1) |
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403 | (1) |
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404 | (1) |
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404 | (1) |
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Comparing Gait Characteristics of Infants and Older Adults: Testing the Regression Hypothesis |
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404 | (1) |
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A Case Study Approach to Understanding Age-Related Changes in Mobility |
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405 | (1) |
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406 | (1) |
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Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
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406 | (1) |
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407 | (33) |
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407 | (1) |
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407 | (1) |
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Motor Systems and Abnormal Gait |
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408 | (14) |
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409 | (3) |
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412 | (3) |
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Loss of Selective Control and the Emergence of Abnormal Synergies |
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415 | (1) |
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416 | (2) |
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Musculoskeletal Impairments |
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418 | (1) |
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Impaired Adaptation of Gait: Contributions of Impaired Reactive and Proactive Balance Control |
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419 | (3) |
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Sensory Systems and Abnormal Gait |
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422 | (4) |
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423 | (1) |
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423 | (1) |
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423 | (1) |
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Perceptual Problems Affecting Gait |
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424 | (2) |
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Cognitive Systems and Impaired Gait |
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426 | (2) |
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Impaired Dual-Task Walking |
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426 | (2) |
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What Factors Limit Participation in the Mobility Domain? |
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428 | (1) |
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Disorders of Mobility Other than Gait |
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429 | (4) |
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429 | (1) |
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430 | (1) |
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Transfers and Bed Mobility |
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430 | (3) |
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A Case Study Approach to Understanding Mobility Disorders |
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433 | (5) |
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Jean J and Genise T: Stroke |
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433 | (1) |
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Mike M: Parkinson's Disease |
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434 | (2) |
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John C: Degenerative Cerebellar Injury |
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436 | (1) |
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436 | (2) |
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Thomas: Spastic Diplegic Cerebral Palsy |
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438 | (1) |
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438 | (2) |
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16 Clinical Management of the Patient with a Mobility Disorder |
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440 | (51) |
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440 | (1) |
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A Task-Oriented Approach to Examination |
|
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441 | (23) |
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Measuring Participation: Mobility Performance in the Home and Community Contexts |
|
|
441 | (2) |
|
Standardized Measures of Walking Capacity |
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443 | (14) |
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Examining the Gait Pattern |
|
|
457 | (5) |
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Examination at the Impairment Level |
|
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462 | (1) |
|
Measuring Mobility: Do We Really Need All These Tests and Measures? |
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462 | (2) |
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464 | (1) |
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464 | (1) |
|
Task-Oriented Approach to Locomotor Training |
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465 | (18) |
|
Interventions at the Impairment Level |
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|
465 | (2) |
|
Intervention at the Strategy Level: Improving the Gait Pattern |
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|
467 | (7) |
|
Training Adaptation: Complex Walking Tasks |
|
|
474 | (2) |
|
Research Supporting Locomotor Training in Specific Patient Populations |
|
|
476 | (5) |
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Improving Participation and Reducing Mobility Disability |
|
|
481 | (2) |
|
Retraining Other Mobility Skills |
|
|
483 | (5) |
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|
483 | (1) |
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|
484 | (1) |
|
Importance of Varying Task and Environmental Demands |
|
|
485 | (3) |
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|
488 | (1) |
|
Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
|
|
489 | (2) |
|
PART IV REACH, GRASP, AND MANIPULATION |
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|
491 | (131) |
|
17 Normal Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation |
|
|
493 | (26) |
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|
493 | (1) |
|
Movement Control Principles |
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|
494 | (1) |
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Feedforward versus Feedback Control of Movement |
|
|
494 | (1) |
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|
495 | (2) |
|
Eye-Head-Trunk Coordination |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
Interactions between Eye Movements and Hand Movements |
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|
496 | (1) |
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|
497 | (1) |
|
Kinematics of Reach and Grasp |
|
|
497 | (1) |
|
Neural Control of Reach and Grasp |
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|
497 | (9) |
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|
497 | (7) |
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|
504 | (2) |
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|
506 | (3) |
|
Classification of Grasping Patterns |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
Anticipatory Control of Grasping Patterns: Precision Grip Formation |
|
|
506 | (2) |
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|
508 | (1) |
|
Coordination of Reach and Grasp |
|
|
509 | (1) |
|
General Principles of Neural Control of Reach and Grasp |
|
|
510 | (7) |
|
Invariant Features of Movement: Motor Programs |
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
Reaction Times for Reach and Grasp |
|
|
510 | (1) |
|
|
511 | (1) |
|
How Does the Nervous System Plan Movements? Muscle Coordinate, Joint Angle Coordinate, and End Point Coordinate Strategies |
|
|
511 | (3) |
|
Distance versus Location Programming Theories |
|
|
514 | (3) |
|
Interference between Reaching and the Performance of Secondary Cognitive Tasks |
|
|
517 | (1) |
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|
518 | (1) |
|
Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
|
|
518 | (1) |
|
18 Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation: Changes across the Life Span |
|
|
519 | (29) |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
Principles Underlying the Development of Reaching Behaviors |
|
|
519 | (3) |
|
Role of Reflexes in the Development of Reaching Behaviors |
|
|
519 | (1) |
|
Reaching Behaviors: Innate or Learned? |
|
|
520 | (2) |
|
Locating a Target: Eye-Head Coordination |
|
|
522 | (2) |
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|
522 | (1) |
|
Tracking Object Movements |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
Development of Visual Pathways for Reaching |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Eye-Head-Hand Coordination Development |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
|
524 | (12) |
|
|
524 | (5) |
|
|
529 | (2) |
|
|
531 | (2) |
|
When Do Children Start Using Anticipatory Control in Grasping and Lifting Objects? |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Adaptation of Grip Forces |
|
|
534 | (1) |
|
Learning to Reach for and Grasp Moving Objects (Catching) |
|
|
534 | (1) |
|
|
534 | (2) |
|
The Role of Experience in the Development of Eye-Hand Coordination |
|
|
536 | (1) |
|
Reaction Time Reaching Tasks |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
|
538 | (7) |
|
Reaching: Changes with Age |
|
|
538 | (3) |
|
Grasping: Changes with Age |
|
|
541 | (2) |
|
Reach-Grasp Adaptation: Changes with Age |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
Compensation and Reversibility of Decrements in Reaching Performance |
|
|
543 | (2) |
|
A Case Study Approach to Understanding Age-Related Changes in Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation |
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
|
|
546 | (2) |
|
19 Abnormal Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation |
|
|
548 | (30) |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
Visual Deficits and Object Localization |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
Problems with Eye-Head-Hand Coordination |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
Problems with Reach and Grasp |
|
|
551 | (20) |
|
|
551 | (13) |
|
|
564 | (7) |
|
Problems with In-Hand Manipulation |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
Interlimb Coupling and Bimanual Tasks |
|
|
572 | (2) |
|
Reach and Grasp in the Ipsilesional Nonhemiparetic Limb |
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
A Case Study Approach to Understanding Upper-Extremity Disorders |
|
|
574 | (2) |
|
Jean J and Genise T: Reach-and-Grasp Problems Following Cerebrovascular Accident |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Mike M: Reach-and-Grasp Problems in Parkinson's Disease |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
John C: Reach-and-Grasp Problems Following Cerebellar Pathology |
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Thomas: Reach-and-Grasp Problems in Cerebral Palsy |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
Malachi: Reach-and-Grasp Problems in Severe Dystonic/Spastic Cerebral Palsy |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
Sue: Reach-and-Grasp Problems in Multiple Sclerosis |
|
|
576 | (1) |
|
|
576 | (2) |
|
20 Clinical Management of the Patient with Reach, Grasp, and Manipulation Disorders |
|
|
578 | (44) |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
|
579 | (15) |
|
Examining the Effect of Prehension on Participation |
|
|
579 | (2) |
|
Examining Prehension in Functional Activities |
|
|
581 | (11) |
|
Examination of Underlying Impairments |
|
|
592 | (2) |
|
Evaluation: Interpreting the Results of the Examination |
|
|
594 | (25) |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
|
595 | (8) |
|
Intervention for Sensorimotor Strategies |
|
|
603 | (7) |
|
Interventions at the Functional Level |
|
|
610 | (8) |
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
Answers to Lab Activity Assignments |
|
|
620 | (2) |
References |
|
622 | (83) |
Index |
|
705 | |