Preface |
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xiii | |
Abbreviations |
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xv | |
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1 | (14) |
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1.1 Energy Conversion and Storage: A Global Challenge |
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1 | (2) |
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1.2 Development History of Electrochemical Energy Storage |
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3 | (1) |
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1.3 Classification of Electrochemical Energy Storage |
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4 | (2) |
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1.4 LIBs and ECs: An Appropriate Electrochemical Energy Storage |
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6 | (4) |
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10 | (5) |
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10 | (5) |
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2 Materials and Fabrication |
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15 | (52) |
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2.1 Mechanisms and Advantages of LIBs |
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15 | (3) |
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15 | (1) |
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2.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages |
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16 | (2) |
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2.2 Mechanisms and Advantages of ECs |
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18 | (4) |
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18 | (1) |
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18 | (2) |
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20 | (1) |
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21 | (1) |
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2.3 Roadmap of Conventional Materials for LIBs |
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22 | (1) |
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2.4 Typical Positive Materials for LIBs |
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23 | (6) |
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23 | (2) |
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2.4.2 LiNiO2 and Its Derivatives |
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25 | (1) |
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26 | (1) |
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27 | (1) |
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2.4.5 Lithium-Manganese-rich Materials |
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28 | (1) |
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2.4.6 Commercial Status of Main Positive Materials |
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28 | (1) |
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2.5 Typical Negative Materials for LIBs |
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29 | (4) |
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29 | (2) |
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2.5.2 Soft and Hard Carbon |
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31 | (2) |
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2.6 New Materials for LIBs |
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33 | (6) |
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2.6.1 Nanocarbon Materials |
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33 | (2) |
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2.6.2 Alloy-Based Materials |
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35 | (4) |
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2.6.3 Metal Lithium Negative |
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39 | (1) |
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2.7 Materials for Conventional ECs |
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39 | (3) |
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2.7.1 Porous Carbon Materials |
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40 | (1) |
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2.7.2 Transition Metal Oxides |
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41 | (1) |
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2.7.3 Conducting Polymers |
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42 | (1) |
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2.8 Electrolytes and Separators |
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42 | (4) |
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42 | (3) |
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45 | (1) |
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46 | (4) |
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2.9.1 Evaluation Criteria for LIBs |
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46 | (1) |
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2.9.2 Theoretical Gravimetric and Volumetric Energy Density |
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46 | (1) |
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2.9.3 Practical Energy and Power Density of LIBs |
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47 | (1) |
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48 | (1) |
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48 | (1) |
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2.9.6 Evaluation Methods for ECs |
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49 | (1) |
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2.10 Production Processes for the Fabrication |
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50 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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2.10.2 Mixing, Coating, Calendering, and Winding |
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51 | (1) |
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2.10.3 Electrolyte Injecting and Formation |
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51 | (1) |
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51 | (16) |
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53 | (14) |
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3 Flexible Cells: Theory and Characterizations |
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67 | (28) |
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3.1 Limitations of the Conventional Cells |
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67 | (2) |
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3.1.1 Mechanical Properties of Conventional Materials |
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67 | (1) |
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3.1.2 Limitations of Conventional Architectures |
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68 | (1) |
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3.1.3 Limitations of Electrolytes |
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69 | (1) |
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3.2 Mechanical Process for Bendable Cells |
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69 | (3) |
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3.2.1 Effect of Thickness |
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70 | (1) |
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3.2.2 Effect of Flexible Substrates and Neutral Plane |
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71 | (1) |
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3.3 Mechanics of Stretchable Cells |
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72 | (4) |
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3.3.1 Wavy Architectures by Small Deformation Buckling Process |
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72 | (2) |
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3.3.2 Wavy Architectures by Large Deformation Buckling Process |
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74 | (1) |
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3.3.3 Island Bridge Architectures |
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75 | (1) |
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3.4 Static Electrochemical Performance of Flexible Cells |
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76 | (1) |
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3.5 Dynamic Performance of Flexible Cells |
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77 | (13) |
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3.5.1 Bending Characterization |
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78 | (1) |
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3.5.2 Stretching Characterization |
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78 | (1) |
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3.5.3 Conformability Test |
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79 | (1) |
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3.5.4 Stress Simulation by Finite Element Analysis |
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79 | (4) |
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3.5.5 Dynamic Electrochemical Performance During Bending |
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83 | (2) |
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3.5.6 Dynamic Electrochemical Performance During Stretching |
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85 | (5) |
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3.6 Summary and Perspectives |
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90 | (5) |
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90 | (5) |
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4 Flexible Cells: Materials and Fabrication Technologies |
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95 | (52) |
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4.1 Construction Principles of Flexible Cells |
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95 | (1) |
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4.2 Substrate Materials for Flexible Cells |
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95 | (3) |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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98 | (1) |
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4.3 Active Materials for Flexible Cells |
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98 | (3) |
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98 | (1) |
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99 | (1) |
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4.3.3 Low-Dimensional Materials |
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99 | (2) |
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4.4 Electrolytes for Flexible LIBs |
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101 | (3) |
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4.4.1 Inorganic Solid-state Electrolytes for Flexible LIBs |
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102 | (2) |
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4.4.2 Solid-state Polymer Electrolytes for Flexible LIBs |
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104 | (1) |
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4.5 Electrolytes for Flexible ECs |
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104 | (3) |
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4.6 Nonconductive Substrates-Based Flexible Cells |
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107 | (14) |
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4.6.1 Paper-Based Flexible Cells |
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108 | (4) |
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4.6.2 Textiles-Based Flexible Cells |
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112 | (5) |
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4.6.3 Polymer Substrates-Based Flexible Cells |
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117 | (4) |
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4.7 CNT and Graphene-Based Flexible Cells |
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121 | (6) |
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4.7.1 Free-standing Graphene and CNTs Films for SCs |
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121 | (1) |
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4.7.2 Free-standing Graphene and CNT Films for LIBs |
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122 | (3) |
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4.7.3 Flexible CNTs/Graphene Composite Films for the Cells |
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125 | (2) |
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4.8 Construction of Stretchable Cells by Novel Architectures |
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127 | (3) |
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4.8.1 Stretchable Cells Based on Wavy Architecture |
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127 | (2) |
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4.8.2 Stretchable Cells Based on Island-Bridge Architecture |
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129 | (1) |
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4.9 Conclusion and Perspectives |
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130 | (17) |
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4.9.1 Mechanical Performance Improvement |
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131 | (1) |
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4.9.2 Innovative Architecture for Stretchable Cells |
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132 | (1) |
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4.9.3 Electrolytes Development |
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132 | (1) |
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132 | (1) |
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4.9.5 Integrated Flexible Devices |
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133 | (1) |
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133 | (14) |
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5 Architectures Design for Cells with High Energy Density |
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147 | (58) |
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5.1 Strategies for High Energy Density Cells |
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147 | (2) |
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5.2 Gravimetric and Volumetric Energy Density of Electrodes |
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149 | (2) |
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5.3 Classification of Thick Electrodes: Bulk and Foam Electrodes |
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151 | (2) |
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5.4 Design and Fabrication of Bulk Electrodes |
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153 | (4) |
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5.4.1 Advantages of Bulk Electrodes |
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153 | (2) |
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5.4.2 Low Tortuosity: The Key for Bulk Electrodes |
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155 | (2) |
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5.5 Characterization and Numerical Simulation of Tortuosity |
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157 | (2) |
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5.5.1 Characterization of Tortuosity by X-ray Tomography |
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157 | (1) |
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5.5.2 Numerical Simulation of Tortuosity on Rates by Commercial Software |
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158 | (1) |
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5.6 Fabrication Methods for Bulk Electrodes |
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159 | (1) |
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5.7 Thick Electrodes with Random Pore Structure |
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160 | (5) |
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5.7.1 Pressure-less High-temperature Sintering Process |
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160 | (1) |
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5.7.2 Cold Sintering Process |
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161 | (1) |
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5.7.3 Spark Plasma Sintering Technology |
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162 | (3) |
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5.7.4 Brief Summary for Sintering Technologies |
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165 | (1) |
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5.8 Thick Electrodes with Directional Pore Distribution |
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165 | (13) |
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5.8.1 Iterative Extrusion Method |
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165 | (3) |
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5.8.2 Magnetic-Induced Alignment Method |
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168 | (1) |
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5.8.3 Carbonized Wood Template Method |
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168 | (4) |
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5.8.4 Ice Templates Method |
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172 | (1) |
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5.8.5 3D-Printing for Thick Electrodes |
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173 | (2) |
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5.8.6 Brief Summary for Bulk Electrodes |
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175 | (3) |
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5.9 Carbon-Based Foam Electrodes with High Gravimetric Energy Density |
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178 | (4) |
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179 | (2) |
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181 | (1) |
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181 | (1) |
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5.10 Carbon-Based Thick Electrodes |
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182 | (9) |
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5.10.1 Low Electronic Conductive Material/Carbon Foam |
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182 | (4) |
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5.10.2 Large Volume Variation Materials/Carbon Foam |
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186 | (2) |
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5.10.3 Compact Graphene Electrodes |
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188 | (1) |
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5.10.4 Summary for Carbon Foam Electrodes |
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189 | (2) |
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5.11 Thick Electrodes Based on the Conductive Polymer Gels |
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191 | (2) |
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5.12 Summary and Perspectives |
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193 | (12) |
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195 | (10) |
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205 | (58) |
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205 | (4) |
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6.1.1 Definition of the Miniaturized Cells and Their Applications |
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205 | (1) |
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6.1.2 Classification of Miniaturized Cells |
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206 | (1) |
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6.1.3 Development Trends of the Miniaturized Cells |
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207 | (2) |
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6.2 Evaluation Methods for the Miniaturized Cells |
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209 | (3) |
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6.2.1 Evaluation Methods for Electric Double-layer m-ECs |
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210 | (1) |
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6.2.2 Evaluation methods for m-LIBs and m-ECs |
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211 | (1) |
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6.3 Architectures of Various Miniaturized Cells |
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212 | (1) |
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6.4 Materials for the Miniaturized Cells |
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213 | (2) |
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6.4.1 Electrode Materials |
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213 | (1) |
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6.4.2 Electrolytes for the Miniaturized Cells |
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214 | (1) |
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6.5 Fabrication Technologies for Miniaturized Cells |
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215 | (5) |
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6.5.1 Fabrication of Miniaturized Cells with 2D Parallel Plate Configuration |
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216 | (4) |
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6.6 Fabrication Technologies for 2D Interdigitated Cells |
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220 | (2) |
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6.7 Printing Technologies for 2D Interdigitated Cells |
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222 | (6) |
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6.7.1 Advantages of Printing Technologies |
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222 | (1) |
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6.7.2 Classification of Printing Techniques |
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222 | (2) |
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6.7.3 Screen Printing for Miniaturized Cells |
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224 | (4) |
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228 | (1) |
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6.8 Electrochemical Deposition Method for 2D Interdigitated Cells |
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228 | (3) |
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6.9 Laser Scribing for 2D Interdigitated Cells |
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231 | (3) |
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6.10 In Situ Electrode Conversion for 2D Interdigitated Cells |
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234 | (2) |
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6.11 Fabrication Technologies for 3D In-plane Miniaturized Cells |
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236 | (4) |
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6.11.1 3D Printing for 3D Interdigitated Configuration Cells |
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236 | (3) |
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6.11.2 3D Interdigitated Configuration by Electrodeposition |
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239 | (1) |
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6.12 Fabrication of Miniaturized Cells with 3D Stacked Configuration |
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240 | (7) |
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6.12.1 3D Stacked Configuration by Template Deposition |
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241 | (4) |
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6.12.2 3D Stacked Configuration by Microchannel-Plated Deposition Methods |
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245 | (2) |
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247 | (2) |
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6.14 Summary and Perspectives |
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249 | (14) |
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250 | (13) |
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263 | (38) |
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7.1 Definition of Smart Materials and Cells |
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263 | (1) |
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7.1.1 Definition of Smart Cells |
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263 | (1) |
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7.1.2 Definition of Smart Materials |
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263 | (1) |
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7.2 Type of Smart Materials |
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264 | (4) |
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7.2.1 Self-healing Materials |
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264 | (1) |
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7.2.2 Shape-memory Alloys |
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265 | (1) |
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7.2.3 Thermal-responding PTC Thermistors |
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266 | (1) |
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7.2.4 Electrochromic Materials |
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267 | (1) |
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7.3 Construction of Smart Cells |
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268 | (12) |
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7.3.1 Self-healing Silicon Anodes |
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268 | (3) |
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7.3.2 Aqueous Self-healing Electrodes |
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271 | (2) |
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7.3.3 Liquid-alloy Self-healing Electrode Materials |
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273 | (1) |
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7.3.4 Thermal-responding Layer |
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274 | (2) |
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7.3.5 Thermal-responding Electrodes Based on the PTC Effect |
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276 | (2) |
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7.3.6 Ionic Blocking Effect-Based Thermal-responding Electrodes |
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278 | (2) |
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7.4 Application of Shape-memory Materials in LIBs and ECs |
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280 | (2) |
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7.4.1 Self-adapting Cells |
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280 | (1) |
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7.4.2 Shape-memory Alloy-Based Thermal Regulator |
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281 | (1) |
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7.5 Self-heating and Self-monitoring Designs |
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282 | (4) |
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283 | (2) |
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285 | (1) |
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7.6 Integrated Electrochromic Architectures for Energy Storage |
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286 | (5) |
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7.6.1 Integration Possibilities |
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286 | (1) |
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7.6.2 Integrated Electrochromic ECs |
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287 | (2) |
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7.6.3 Integrated Electrochromic LIBs |
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289 | (2) |
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1.1 Summary and Perspectives |
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291 | (10) |
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292 | (9) |
Index |
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301 | |