Muutke küpsiste eelistusi

Oil in the Sea IV: Inputs, Fates, and Effects [Pehme köide]

, , ,
  • Formaat: Paperback / softback, 516 pages, kõrgus x laius: 279x216 mm
  • Ilmumisaeg: 22-Jan-2023
  • Kirjastus: National Academies Press
  • ISBN-10: 030927429X
  • ISBN-13: 9780309274296
Teised raamatud teemal:
Oil in the Sea IV: Inputs, Fates, and EffectsSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: Paperback / softback, 516 pages, kõrgus x laius: 279x216 mm
  • Ilmumisaeg: 22-Jan-2023
  • Kirjastus: National Academies Press
  • ISBN-10: 030927429X
  • ISBN-13: 9780309274296
Teised raamatud teemal:
Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9780309274296.html
Oil and natural gas represent more than 50 percent of the worldwide energy supply, with high energy demand driven by population growth and improving standards of living. Despite significant progress in reducing the amount of oil in the sea from consumption, exploration, transportation, and production, risks remain. This report, the fourth in a series, documents the current state-of-knowledge on inputs, fates and effects of oil in the sea, reflecting almost 20 additional years of research, including long-term effects from spills such as the Exxon Valdez and a decade-long boom in oil spill science research following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.



The report finds that land-based sources of oil are the biggest input of oil to the sea, far outweighing other sources, and it also notes that the effects of chronic inputs on the marine environment, such as land-based runoff, are very different than that from an acute input, such as a spill. Steps to prevent chronic land-based oil inputs include reducing gasoline vehicle usage, improving fuel efficiency, increasing usage of electric vehicles, replacing older vehicles. The report identifies research gaps and provides specific recommendations aimed at preventing future accidental spills and ensuring oil spill responders are equipped with the best response tools and information to limit oil's impact on the marine environment.

Table of Contents



Front Matter Summary 1 Introduction 2 Petroleum as a Complex Chemical Mixture 3 Input of Oil to the Sea 4 Accidental Spill Mitigation 5 Fates of Oil in the Sea 6 Effects of Oil in the Sea 7 Recommendations References Acronyms and Abbreviations Glossary Appendix A: North American Zone Descriptions Appendix B: Energy Outlook Data Sources Appendix C: Estimating Land-Based Sources of Oil in the Sea Appendix D: Regional Values of Water-to-Oil Ratio for Calculating Inputs from Produced Water Appendix E: Common Shoreline Response Options Appendix F: Technical Aspects of Equations and Models for Droplet Breakup in Turbulent Flows Appendix G: Classification of Intertidal, Subtidal, Ice, and On-Water Areas Appendix H: Omics Techniques Appendix I: Table of Common Hydrocarbon Degraders Appendix J: Committee Biographies
Summary 1(10)
1 Introduction
11(14)
1.1 Present And Future Energy Needs
11(6)
1.1.1 World Energy Needs
11(3)
1.1.2 Energy Needs of North America
14(1)
1.1.3 Energy Outlook
14(3)
1.2 Study Rationale
17(8)
1.2.1 Statement of Task
18(2)
1.2.2 Progress on Oil in the Sea III Recommendations
20(2)
1.2.3 Report Organization
22(3)
2 Petroleum As A Complex Chemical Mixture
25(30)
2.1 Composition Of Petroleum As A Complex Mixture Of Chemicals And Progress In Analyses Of This Complex Mixture
25(13)
2.1.1 Introduction
25(1)
2.1.2 Definitions and Classifications of Petroleum
25(2)
2.1.3 Oils or Fuels of Emerging Importance
27(1)
2.1.3.1 Diluted Bitumen
28(1)
2.1.3.2 Heavy Fuel Oils and Low Sulfur Fuel Oils
28(1)
2.1.3.3 Lubricating Oils
28(1)
2.1.3.4 Biofuels
28(1)
2.1.3.5 Olefins
28(1)
2.1.4 Chemical Compositions
28(1)
2.1.4.1 Gases, Volatile Organic Compounds, and BTEX
29(2)
2.1.4.2 Saturates, Aromatics, Resins, and Asphaltenes (SARA) and Other Chemicals in Petroleum
31(3)
2.1.4.3 Petroleum Biomarkers
34(1)
2.1.1 Physical Chemical Properties of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
34(2)
2.1.2 General Sources of Hydrocarbons in the Marine Environment
36(2)
2.1.3 Sampling and In Situ Observations and Analyses
38(1)
2.2 Phases And States Of Petroleum Fluids In The Sea
38(12)
2.2.1 Gas- and Liquid-Phase Petroleum
38(1)
2.2.1.1 Live Oil and Gas
39(1)
2.2.1.2 Weathered Oil
40(1)
2.2.1.3 Gas Hydrates
40(1)
2.2.2 Advances in Analytical Chemistry Methods
40(1)
2.2.2.1 Ultraviolet Fluorescence Analyses as a Sample Screening Method and Related Advances
40(4)
2.2.2.2 Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography (GCxGC) and GCxGC Mass Spectrometry (GCxGC-MS)
44(1)
2.2.2.3 Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS)
45(3)
2.2.2.4 High Magnetic Field Fourier Transform-Ion Cyclotron Resonance-Mass Spectrometry (High Mag FT-ICR-MS) or Ultra High Resolution Mass Spectrometry
48(1)
2.2.2.5 Pyrolysis GC-MS
48(1)
2.2.2.6 Carbon Isotope (l3C, l4C) Measurements of Environmental Samples
48(1)
2.2.2.7 Expanding the Utilization of the Above Advancements to Assessment of Fate, Effects, and Forensics of Inputs
48(1)
2.2.2.8 The Challenges with Reporting of Petroleum and Other Hydrocarbon Concentrations in Environmental Samples
49(1)
2.3 Thermodynamics Of Mixtures Of Oils
50(3)
2.4 Conclusions
53(2)
3 Input Of Oil To The Sea
55(52)
3.1 Overview Of Oil Inputs
58(1)
3.2 Natural Seeps
59(4)
3.2.1 Oil
59(4)
3.2.2 Methane
63(1)
3.3 Land-Based Sources
63(3)
3.3.1 Runoff
63(2)
3.3.2 Atmospheric Deposition
65(1)
3.4 Operational Discharges
66(7)
3.4.1 Extraction of Oil and Gas
66(1)
3.4.1.1 Emissions
66(1)
3.4.1.2 Produced Water
67(3)
3.4.2 Transportation
70(1)
3.4.2.1 Marine Transportation
70(2)
3.4.2.2 Recreational Vessels
72(1)
3.4.2.3 Aircraft Fuel Jettison
73(1)
3.5 Accidental Spills
73(32)
3.5.1 Exploration and Production of Oil and Gas
73(1)
3.5.1.1 Estimation of Oil Inputs from Spills Resulting from Exploration and Production
74(7)
3.5.2 Spills Caused by Natural Hazards
81(1)
3.5.3 Aging Infrastructure and Decommissioning Leakage
81(3)
3.5.4 Transportation of Oil and Gas
84(1)
3.5.4.1 Pipelines
85(1)
3.5.4.2 Tank Vessel Spills
86(4)
3.5.4.3 Non-Tank Vessel Spills
90(2)
3.5.4.4 Transportation by Rail
92(1)
3.5.4.5 Coastal Storage Facilities
93(1)
3.5.4.6 Coastal Refineries
93(1)
3.5.5 Potentially Polluting Sunken Wrecks
94(5)
3.5.6 Projections of Future Oil Spillage
99(6)
3.6 Conclusions
105(2)
4 Accidental Spill Mitigation
107(54)
4.1 Source Control
107(3)
4.1.1 Salvage as Source Control for Vessel Spills
107(1)
4.1.2 Offshore Wells
108(2)
4.1.3 Pipelines
110(1)
4.2 Response
110(48)
4.2.1 Introduction
110(1)
4.2.1.1 Response Structure
110(1)
4.2.1.2 Common Operating Picture and Information Management Systems
111(1)
4.2.1.3 Classification of Coastal Environments and Environmental Sensitivity Index
111(1)
4.2.1.4 Response Toolbox
112(2)
4.2.1.5 Response Research and Development
114(2)
4.2.2 Monitoring and Assessment
116(1)
4.2.2.1 Surface Oil Detection and Monitoring
116(5)
4.2.2.2 Oil Detection and Monitoring in the Water Column
121(2)
4.2.2.3 Oil Spill Detection Above and Under Ice
123(1)
4.2.2.4 Special Monitoring of Applied Response Technologies
123(1)
4.2.2.5 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique
124(3)
4.2.3 Offshore Response
127(1)
4.2.3.1 Monitored Natural Attenuation and Biodegradation
127(1)
4.2.3.2 Mechanical Recovery
128(3)
4.2.3.3 In Situ Burning
131(4)
4.2.3.4 Dispersants
135(8)
4.2.3.5 Summary of Offshore Response Techniques
143(1)
4.2.3.6 Submerged and Sunken Oil Response
143(1)
4.2.4 Shoreline Protection and Cleanup
143(4)
4.2.4.1 Advanced Shoreline Cleanup Techniques
147(5)
4.2.5 Comparison of Response Options for Decision-Making
152(1)
4.2.5.1 Consensus Ecological Risk Assessment
153(1)
4.2.5.2 Spill Impact Mitigation Assessment
153(1)
4.2.5.3 Comparative Risk Assessment
154(1)
4.2.6 Wildlife Rescue and Rehabilitation
154(4)
4.3 Conclusions And Research Needs
158(3)
Research Needs
159(2)
5 Fates Of Oil In The SEA
161(102)
5.1 Introduction
162(1)
5.1.1 Major Advances in the Past 20 Years
162(1)
5.1.2
Chapter Structure and Caveats
163(1)
5.2 Fundamental Transport And Weathering Processes
163(46)
5.2.1 Phases and States of Petroleum Fluids in the Sea
164(2)
5.2.2 Immiscible Dynamics of Oil and Gas in Seawater: Sheens, Slicks, Bubbles, and Droplets
166(1)
5.2.2.1 Surface Oil Spreading
166(2)
5.2.2.2 Gas Bubble Breakup
168(1)
5.2.2.3 Oil Droplet Breakup and Dispersion
169(2)
5.2.2.4 Effects of Chemical Dispersants on Droplet Breakup
171(1)
5.2.3 Transport and Dilution of Oil and Gas in the Sea
171(2)
5.2.4 Routes to and from the Atmosphere: Evaporation, Aerosolization, and Atmospheric Re-deposition
173(1)
5.2.4.1 Primary Atmospheric Pollutants
173(2)
5.2.4.2 Formation of Secondary Pollutants
175(1)
5.2.4.3 Deposition of Atmospheric Pollutants in the Marine Environment
175(1)
5.2.5 Photochemical Reactions
176(4)
5.2.6 Dissolution
180(1)
5.2.6.1 Dissolution Mass Transfer from Floating Oil
180(1)
5.2.6.2 Dissolution Mass Transfer from Suspended Gas and Oil
181(1)
5.2.7 Emulsification
182(2)
5.2.8 Microbial Biodegradation of Oil
184(1)
5.2.8.1 Microbes in the Sea: Who Is Out There and How We Know
184(2)
5.2.8.2 Biodegradation: Why Microbes Are Important to Oil in the Sea
186(5)
5.2.8.3 The Physical State of Oil Influences Its Bioavailability
191(1)
5.2.8.4 The Chemical Composition of Oil Influences Its Biodegradation
192(2)
5.2.8.5 Biodegradation Kinetics: Measuring Rates of Biodegradation
194(1)
5.2.8.6 Biodegradation Changes the Chemical Composition of Oils
195(2)
5.2.8.7 Biodegradation Changes the Physical Properties and Behavior of Oils
197(1)
5.2.8.8 General Environmental Factors Affecting Biodegradation
197(4)
5.2.9 Examples of Oil Spill Budgets
201(1)
5.2.9.1 Caveats on Oil Budgets
202(1)
5.2.9.2 Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Budget
203(1)
5.2.9.3 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Budget
203(5)
5.2.9.4 M/TAthos I Oil Budget
208(1)
5.3 Oil Fates In Specific Marine Environments: Episodic Inputs
209(38)
5.3.1 Sea Surface Processes Affecting Oil Fate
209(1)
5.3.1.1 Initial Spreading of Oil on Surface Waters
209(1)
5.3.1.2 Wind Drift and Stokes Drift
209(1)
5.3.1.3 Natural and Chemical Dispersion of Oil in Near-Surface Waters
210(2)
5.3.1.4 Other Processes Affecting Surface and Near-Surface Oil
212(1)
5.3.2 Processes Affecting Oil in the Water Column
212(1)
5.3.2.1 Sorption of Oil to Mineral Particles
213(1)
5.3.2.2 Sorption of Oil to Organic Particles: Marine Oil Snow (MOS) and MOSSFA
213(5)
5.3.2.3 Sorption to Plastics
218(4)
5.3.2.4 Submergence and Sinking of Heavy Oils and Semi-Solid Oils
222(1)
5.3.3 Deep Sea and Deep Sediment Processes
222(1)
5.3.3.1 Plume Dynamics and Intrusion Formation
223(1)
5.3.3.2 Bubble and Droplet Breakup from Subsurface Leaks
224(4)
5.3.3.3 Formation of Natural Gas Hydrates
228(1)
5.3.3.4 Gas Ebullition and Dissolution
229(2)
5.3.3.5 Effects of Subsea Dispersant Injection
231(1)
5.3.3.6 Sedimentation and Burial of Oil
232(2)
5.3.4 Shorelines and Near-Shore Sediments
234(1)
5.3.4.1 Behavior of Oil in Shorelines
235(3)
5.3.4.2 Tar Balls
238(1)
5.3.5 Arctic Marine Systems and Sea Ice
238(2)
5.3.5.1 Effects of Low Temperatures and Sea Ice on Oil Behavior and Chemistry
240(2)
5.3.5.2 Effect of Low Temperature on Oil Biodegradation
242(2)
5.3.5.3 Biodegradation Within and Below Sea Ice
244(2)
5.3.5.4 Other Factors Affecting Biodegradation in the Arctic Water Column: Bioavailability and Nutrient Concentrations
246(1)
5.3.5.5 Arctic Seafloor Sediments, Deep Seeps, and Shorelines
247(1)
5.4 Fates In Specific Marine Environments: Chronic Inputs
247(5)
5.4.1 Fates of Oil and Gas from Natural Seeps
248(1)
5.4.2 Offshore Produced Water
249(1)
5.4.3 Fates of Oil from Ship Discharges
250(1)
5.4.4 Fates of Oil from Riverine Sources
250(1)
5.4.5 Fates of Oil in Coastal Ecosystems: Monitoring PAH Profiles in Sediments and Bivalves
251(1)
5.5 Modeling The Transport And Fate Of Spilled Oil
252(6)
5.5.1 Model Components
252(2)
5.5.2 Types of Models
254(1)
5.5.2.1 Integrated Oil Spill Models
254(1)
5.5.2.2 Research Models
254(2)
5.5.2.3 Uses of Models
256(1)
5.5.3 Model Validation and Uncertainty
257(1)
5.5.3.1 Model Validation
257(1)
5.5.3.2 Model Uncertainty
257(1)
5.6 Conclusions And Research Needs
258(5)
6 Effects Of Oil In The Sea
263(98)
6.1 Introduction
263(6)
6.2 Modes Of Exposure
269(2)
6.2.1 Physical Contact
269(1)
6.2.2 Ingestion
270(1)
6.2.3 Inhalation
270(1)
6.2.4 Absorption
270(1)
6.3 Mechanisms Of Toxicity
271(12)
6.3.1 Toxicity from Physical Contact
271(1)
6.3.1.1 Impaired Mobility
271(1)
6.3.1.2 Impaired Thermoregulation
272(1)
6.3.1.3 Dermal Irritation
272(1)
6.3.1.4 Asphyxiation
273(1)
6.3.2 Toxicity from Ingestion
273(1)
6.3.2.1 Gastrointestinal Tract Damage
273(1)
6.3.2.2 Hepatotoxicity
274(1)
6.3.2.3 Renal Dysfunction
274(1)
6.3.2.4 Immune System Impairment
274(1)
6.3.2.5 Neurological Deficits
274(1)
6.3.2.6 Cardiovascular Impairments
275(1)
6.3.2.7 Hormonal System Disruption
275(1)
6.3.2.8 Anemia
275(1)
6.3.2.9 Growth Inhibition
275(1)
6.3.3 Toxicity from Inhalation
275(2)
6.3.4 Toxicity from Absorption of Soluble Oil Components
277(1)
6.3.4.1 Acute Toxicity
277(1)
6.3.4.2 Cardiovascular Impairment
278(2)
6.3.4.3 Photoenhanced Toxicity
280(2)
6.3.4.4 Immune System Impairment
282(1)
6.3.4.5 Behavioral Effects
282(1)
6.4 Limitations And Challenges In Interpreting Laboratory Toxicity Data
283(11)
6.4.1 Implications of the Variability in the Design, Execution and Reporting of Toxicity Tests
283(8)
6.4.2 Challenges Regarding the Environmental Relevance and Field Applicability of Laboratory Toxicity Tests
291(3)
6.5 Effects On Populations, Communities, And Ecosystems
294(38)
6.5.1 Limitations and Challenges
295(1)
6.5.1.1 Multiple Stressors
295(1)
6.5.1.2 Baseline and Long-Term Data
295(1)
6.5.1.3 Inability to Achieve Appropriate Experimental Designs
296(1)
6.5.1.4 An "Open" Ecosystem
297(1)
6.5.1.5 Before-and-After Controlled Experiments Versus Inferential Observations
297(1)
6.5.2 Air-Sea Interface
297(5)
6.5.3 Shorelines
302(1)
6.5.3.1 Salt Marshes (ESI 10)
303(7)
6.5.3.2 Mangrove Communities (ESI 10)
310(3)
6.5.3.3 Sheltered Rocky Shores (ESI 8)
313(1)
6.5.3.4 Seagrass Communities (no ESI category)
313(1)
6.5.3.5 Tidal Flats (ESI 7 and 9)
314(1)
6.5.3.6 Sandy Beaches (ESI 3 and 4)
315(1)
6.5.4 Coral Reefs (ESI 4)
315(1)
6.5.4.1 Intertidal and Subtidal Coral Reefs
316(4)
6.5.4.2 Mesophotic and Deep-Sea, Cold-Water Corals
320(3)
6.5.5 Benthic Communities
323(1)
6.5.5.1 Continental Shelf Soft Sediments
323(1)
6.5.5.2 Deep-Sea Soft Sediments
324(1)
6.5.5.3 Hydrocarbon Seeps
325(1)
6.5.6 Water Column
325(1)
6.5.6.1 Bacterial Communities
325(1)
6.5.6.2 Phytoplankton Communities
326(1)
6.5.6.3 Zooplankton Communities
327(1)
6.5.6.4 Kelp Beds
327(1)
6.5.6.5 Fish and Other Water-Column Inhabitants
327(1)
6.5.6.6 Produced Water Discharges
328(1)
6.5.7 Ecosystem Effects
329(1)
6.5.7.1 Trophic Transfer
329(1)
6.5.7.2 Community Effects
329(1)
6.5.7.3 Indirect Effects and Trophic Cascades
330(1)
6.5.7.4 Ecosystem-Level Effects
331(1)
6.5.7.5 Ecosystem Services
331(1)
6.6 Effects In Arctic Environments
332(1)
6.6.1 Marine Ecosystems in the North American Arctic
332(1)
6.6.2 Arctic Marine Organisms Vulnerable to Oil Pollution
333(1)
6.7 Oil Effects Modeling
333(8)
6.7.1 Overview of Fate, Exposure, and Toxicity Models
333(1)
6.7.2 Models to Estimate Aquatic Toxicity to Individuals
334(1)
6.7.2.1 Narcosis Target Lipid Models
335(1)
6.7.2.2 PETROTOX Model
335(1)
6.7.2.3 De Minimiz Risk Models
336(1)
6.7.2.4 The Dispersant and Chemically Dispersed Oil Toxicity Database (DTox)
336(2)
6.7.2.5 CAFE and Species-Sensitivity Distributions
338(1)
6.7.2.6 Interspecies Correlation Estimation Models
338(2)
6.7.3 Limitations and Challenges of Modeling Approaches
340(1)
6.8 Human Health Effects
341(15)
6.8.1 Components and Derivatives of Crude Oil of Known Importance to Human Health Effects
343(1)
6.8.2 Pathways of Human Exposure to Oil in the Sea
344(1)
6.8.3 Methodological Approaches to Estimating Human Exposure
344(1)
6.8.4 Human Susceptibility Factors Related to the Potential Toxicity of Oil in the Sea
345(1)
6.8.5 Human Health Effects Potentially Due to Oil in the Sea: Direct Toxicity of Crude Oil and Its Degradation Products
345(1)
6.8.5.1 Acute Effects
345(1)
6.8.5.2 Cancer
346(1)
6.8.5.3 Other Longer-Term Effects
346(1)
6.8.6 Toxicity of Crude Oil Components of Particular Concern
347(1)
6.8.6.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
347(1)
6.8.6.2 Benzene and Alkyl Benzenes
348(1)
6.8.7 Dispersants
349(1)
6.8.8 Human Health Effects Due to Oil Spilled in the Sea: Mental and Behavioral Effects
350(1)
6.8.8.1 Evidence of Disasters as a Cause of Mental and Behavioral Health Effects
350(1)
6.8.8.2 Evidence for the Role of Economic Impacts on the Mental and Behavioral Effects and Social Effects of Oil Spills
351(2)
6.8.9 Dinoflagellate Toxin Poisoning
353(1)
6.8.10 Other Effects on Human Health: Workers Health and Safety
354(1)
6.8.11 Seafood Safety
354(1)
6.8.12 Vulnerability of Humans to Oil Pollution in the Arctic
355(1)
6.9 Conclusions And Research Needs
356(5)
7 Recommendations
361(74)
7.1 Quantification Of Oil In The Sea
362(1)
7.2 Prevention
362(1)
7.3 Minimizing Effects
363(1)
7.4 Data To Advance The Science
363(1)
7.5 Framework To Advance The Research
364(1)
7.6 Research Needs To Advance The Science
364(1)
References
365(52)
Acronyms And Abbreviations
417(10)
Glossary
427(8)
APPENDIXES
A North American Zone Descriptions
435(2)
B Energy Outlook Data Sources
437(2)
C Estimating Land-Based Sources Of Oil In The Sea
439(18)
D Regional Values Of Water-To-Oil Ratio For Calculating Inputs From Produced Water
457(2)
E Common Shoreline Response Options
459(4)
F Technical Aspects Of Equations And Models For Droplet Breakup In Turbulent Flows
463(4)
G Classification Of Intertidal, Subtidal, Ice, And On-Water Areas
467(20)
H `Omics Techniques
487(4)
I Table Of Common Hydrocarbon Degraders
491(2)
J Committee Biographies
493