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The Opto-Mechanical Design Process |
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1 | (1) |
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2 | (3) |
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Performance Specifications and Design Constraints |
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5 | (7) |
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12 | (2) |
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Design Analysis and Computer Modeling |
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14 | (7) |
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Error Budgets and Tolerances |
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21 | (6) |
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27 | (3) |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (1) |
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Manufacturing the Instrument |
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32 | (1) |
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Evaluating the End Product |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (3) |
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34 | (3) |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (31) |
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39 | (4) |
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43 | (1) |
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Static Strains and Stresses |
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44 | (1) |
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45 | (7) |
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52 | (2) |
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54 | (1) |
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54 | (1) |
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55 | (4) |
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59 | (1) |
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60 | (3) |
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High-Energy Radiation and Micrometeorites |
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63 | (3) |
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Laser Damage to Optical Components |
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66 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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Materials and Measurements |
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67 | (2) |
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69 | (1) |
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Environmental Testing of Optics |
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69 | (8) |
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71 | (6) |
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Opto-Mechanical Characteristics of Materials |
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77 | (1) |
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Materials for Refracting Optics |
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77 | (28) |
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77 | (2) |
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79 | (10) |
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89 | (6) |
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95 | (2) |
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Alkali and Alkaline Earth Halides |
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97 | (3) |
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100 | (1) |
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100 | (5) |
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105 | (1) |
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Coefficients Related to Optical Material Thermal Behavior |
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105 | (1) |
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Materials for Reflecting Optics |
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105 | (10) |
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105 | (8) |
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113 | (2) |
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115 | (1) |
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Materials for Mechanical Components |
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115 | (13) |
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116 | (1) |
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116 | (2) |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (1) |
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118 | (3) |
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121 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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Corrosion-Resistant Steel |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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124 | (4) |
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128 | (9) |
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128 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (1) |
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Transmission Characteristics |
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131 | (1) |
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Cementing Optical Surfaces |
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132 | (1) |
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133 | (1) |
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134 | (1) |
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134 | (3) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (3) |
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Special Coatings for Opto-Mechanical Materials |
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140 | (3) |
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140 | (1) |
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140 | (1) |
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Platings and Anodic Coatings |
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141 | (1) |
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141 | (1) |
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141 | (2) |
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Coatings to Improve Surface Smoothness |
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143 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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143 | (1) |
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Techniques for Manufacturing Opto-Mechanical Parts |
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143 | (14) |
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Manufacturing Optical Parts |
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143 | (3) |
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Manufacturing Mechanical Parts |
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146 | (1) |
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146 | (1) |
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147 | (1) |
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Forging and Extrusion Methods |
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147 | (2) |
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Fabricating and Curing Composites |
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149 | (1) |
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General Comments Regarding Manufacturing Processes |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (6) |
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Mounting Individual Lenses |
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157 | (1) |
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Considerations of Centered Optics |
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157 | (10) |
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Cost Impacts of Fabrication Tolerances |
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167 | (6) |
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Lens Weight and Center of Gravity Location |
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173 | (5) |
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174 | (3) |
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Lens Center of Gravity Location |
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177 | (1) |
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Mounting Individual Low-Precision Lenses |
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178 | (5) |
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178 | (1) |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (3) |
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Mountings for Lenses with Curved Rims |
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183 | (1) |
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Mountings Interfacing with Spherical Surfaces |
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184 | (18) |
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184 | (3) |
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The Threaded Retaining Ring Mounting |
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187 | (5) |
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Continuous Flange Mounting |
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192 | (2) |
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Multiple Cantilevered Spring Clip Mounting |
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194 | (3) |
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Opto-Mechanical Interface Types |
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197 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (4) |
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Elastomeric Mountings for Lenses |
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202 | (2) |
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Mounting Lenses on Flexures |
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204 | (3) |
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Alignment of the Individual Lens |
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207 | (15) |
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222 | (7) |
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226 | (3) |
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229 | (1) |
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Multielement Spacing Considerations |
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229 | (6) |
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Examples of Lens Assemblies with No Moving Parts |
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235 | (10) |
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Military Telescope Eyepiece |
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235 | (2) |
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Military Telescope Objective |
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237 | (1) |
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237 | (2) |
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Aerial Photographic Objective Lens |
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239 | (1) |
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Low-Distortion Projection Lens |
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240 | (1) |
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Motion Picture Projection Lens |
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241 | (1) |
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Collimator Designed for High-Shock Loading |
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241 | (2) |
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Large Astrographic Objective |
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243 | (2) |
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245 | (1) |
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Examples of Lens Assemblies Containing Moving Parts |
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245 | (14) |
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Objectives Designed for Mid-IR Applications |
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245 | (2) |
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Internally Focusing Photographic Lenses |
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247 | (1) |
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Binocular Focus Mechanisms |
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248 | (4) |
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252 | (7) |
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Lathe Assembly Techniques |
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259 | (5) |
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264 | (3) |
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Assemblies Using Plastic Parts |
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267 | (3) |
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Liquid Coupling of Lenses |
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270 | (2) |
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272 | (10) |
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Alignment of Multi-Lense Assemblies |
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282 | (15) |
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Alignment of Reflecting Telescope Systems |
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297 | (4) |
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298 | (3) |
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Mounting Windows and Filters |
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301 | (1) |
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Conventional Window Mounts |
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302 | (1) |
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303 | (7) |
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Mounts for Shells and Domes |
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310 | (5) |
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315 | (5) |
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320 | (3) |
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Windows Subject to a Pressure Differential |
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323 | (8) |
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323 | (4) |
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Optical Performance Degradation |
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327 | (2) |
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329 | (2) |
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Designing and Mounting Prisms |
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331 | (1) |
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331 | (6) |
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Refraction and Reflection at Prism Surfaces |
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331 | (1) |
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Aberrations Caused by Prisms and Plates |
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332 | (1) |
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Beam Displacements Caused by Prisms and Plates |
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332 | (1) |
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333 | (3) |
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Total Internal Reflection |
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336 | (1) |
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Designs for Typical Prisms |
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337 | (36) |
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338 | (1) |
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The Beam Splitter (or Beam Combiner) Cube Prism |
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338 | (1) |
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338 | (1) |
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339 | (1) |
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The Abbe Version of the Porro Prism |
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339 | (3) |
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The Porro Erecting System |
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342 | (2) |
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344 | (1) |
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345 | (1) |
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346 | (1) |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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348 | (1) |
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The Amici/Penta and Right-Angle/Roof Penta Erecting Systems |
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349 | (1) |
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The Reversion, Abbe Type A, and Abbe Type B Prisms |
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349 | (1) |
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350 | (2) |
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352 | (3) |
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355 | (3) |
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The 45° Bauernfeind Prism |
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358 | (1) |
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The Frankford Arsenal Prisms Nos. 1 and 2 |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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An Internally Reflecting Axicon Prism |
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359 | (1) |
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359 | (2) |
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An Ocular Prism for a Coincidence Rangefinder |
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361 | (4) |
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365 | (1) |
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366 | (2) |
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368 | (1) |
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368 | (1) |
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368 | (2) |
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The Longitudinally Sliding Wedge |
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370 | (1) |
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A Focus-Adjusting Wedge System |
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370 | (1) |
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371 | (2) |
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Kinematic and Semikinematic Prism Mounting Principles |
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373 | (2) |
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Mounting Prism by Clamping |
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375 | (12) |
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Prism Mounts: Semikinematic |
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375 | (9) |
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Prism Mounts: Nonkinematic |
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384 | (3) |
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Mounting Prisms by Bonding |
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387 | (9) |
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Flexure Mounts for Prisms |
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396 | (5) |
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399 | (2) |
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Design and Mounting Small, Nonmetallic Mirrors, Gratings, and Pellicles |
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401 | (1) |
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402 | (13) |
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402 | (1) |
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402 | (1) |
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Reflected Image Orientation |
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402 | (3) |
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Beam Prints on Optical Surfaces |
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405 | (3) |
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408 | (3) |
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Ghost Image Formation by Second-Surface Mirrors |
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411 | (4) |
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Semikinematic Mountings for Small Mirrors |
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415 | (10) |
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Mounting Mirrors by Bonding |
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425 | (3) |
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Flexure Mounts for Mirrors |
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428 | (5) |
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433 | (8) |
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441 | (3) |
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Pellicle Design and Mounting |
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444 | (5) |
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446 | (3) |
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Lightweight Nonmetallic Mirror Design |
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449 | (1) |
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450 | (1) |
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451 | (2) |
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453 | (3) |
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Slotted-Strut and Fused Monolithic Substrates |
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456 | (7) |
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463 | (2) |
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Low-Temperature Bonded Substrates |
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465 | (1) |
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466 | (4) |
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Contoured-Back Solid Mirror Configurations |
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470 | (2) |
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Thin Face Sheet Mirror Configurations |
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472 | (1) |
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Scaling Relationships for Lightweight Mirrors |
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473 | (8) |
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477 | (4) |
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Mounting Large, Horizontal-Axis Mirrors |
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481 | (1) |
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General Considerations of Gravity Effects |
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481 | (1) |
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482 | (7) |
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489 | (2) |
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491 | (1) |
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492 | (1) |
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Strap and Roller-Chain Mounts |
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493 | (5) |
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498 | (1) |
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Comparison of Dynamic Relaxation and Finite-Element Analysis Techniques |
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499 | (4) |
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501 | (2) |
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Mounting Large Vertical-Axis Mirrors |
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503 | (1) |
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503 | (3) |
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506 | (3) |
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509 | (9) |
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509 | (3) |
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512 | (3) |
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515 | (1) |
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Pneumatic/Hydraulic Mounts |
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516 | (2) |
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518 | (9) |
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A 36-Point Pneumatic Metrology Mount |
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519 | (1) |
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A 27-Point Hydraulic Metrology Mount |
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519 | (1) |
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A 52-Point Spring Matrix Metrology Mount |
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520 | (4) |
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Lateral Constraints during Polishing |
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524 | (1) |
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525 | (2) |
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Mounting Large, Variable-Orientation Mirrors |
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527 | (1) |
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Mechanical Flotation Mounts |
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527 | (7) |
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Hydraulic/Pneumatic Mounts |
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534 | (14) |
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534 | (3) |
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537 | (8) |
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New Multiple Mirror Telescope |
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545 | (3) |
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548 | (5) |
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Mounts for Double-Arch Mirrors |
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553 | (4) |
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557 | (4) |
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Thin Face Sheet Mirror Mounts |
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561 | (16) |
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561 | (5) |
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566 | (5) |
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571 | (3) |
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The Advanced Electro-Optical System Telescope |
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574 | (1) |
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The MMT Adaptive Secondary Mirror |
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575 | (2) |
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Mounts for Large Space-Borne Mirrors |
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577 | (8) |
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The Hubble Space Telescope |
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577 | (2) |
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The Chandra X-Ray Telescope |
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579 | (3) |
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582 | (3) |
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Design and Mounting of Metallic Mirrors |
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585 | (1) |
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General Considerations of Metal Mirrors |
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585 | (2) |
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587 | (11) |
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593 | (1) |
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Machined Aluminum Mirrors |
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593 | (2) |
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595 | (3) |
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598 | (9) |
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Mirrors Made from Other Metals |
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607 | (4) |
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607 | (1) |
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607 | (1) |
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608 | (3) |
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Mirrors with Foam and Metal Matrix Cores |
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611 | (12) |
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623 | (2) |
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Single-Point Diamond Turning of Metal Mirrors |
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625 | (11) |
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Conventional Mountings for Metal Mirrors |
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636 | (2) |
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Integral Mountings for Metal Mirrors |
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638 | (4) |
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Flexure Mountings for Larger Metal Mirrors |
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642 | (6) |
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Interfacing Multiple SPDT Components to Facilitate Assembly and Alignment |
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648 | (11) |
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652 | (7) |
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Optical Instrument Structural Design |
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659 | (1) |
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Rigid Housing Configurations |
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659 | (16) |
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659 | (3) |
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662 | (1) |
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663 | (3) |
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Space-Borne Spectro-Radiometer Cameras |
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666 | (3) |
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669 | (5) |
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A Thermally Stable Optical Structure |
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674 | (1) |
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Modular Design Principles and Examples |
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675 | (12) |
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Injection-Molded Plastic Modules |
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676 | (1) |
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A Modular Military Binocular |
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677 | (5) |
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A Modular Spectrometer for Space Application |
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682 | (3) |
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685 | (2) |
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A Structural Design for High Shock Loading |
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687 | (2) |
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Athermalized Structural Designs |
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689 | (27) |
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Instruments Made from a Single Material |
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689 | (1) |
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689 | (1) |
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The Spitzer Space Telescope |
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690 | (3) |
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A Telescope with Optical and Inter-Component Interfaces Processed by SPDT |
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693 | (1) |
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694 | (1) |
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Instruments Athermalized with Metering Structures |
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695 | (1) |
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The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory |
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696 | (2) |
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The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite |
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698 | (4) |
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The Deep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph |
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702 | (1) |
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Athermalization of the Multiangle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer |
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703 | (3) |
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Athermalization of the Hubble Space Telescope Truss Structure |
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706 | (3) |
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Athermalization of the Galaxy Evolution Explorer |
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709 | (3) |
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Athermalization of Refracting Optical Systems |
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712 | (4) |
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Geometries for Telescope Tube Structures |
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716 | (17) |
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716 | (2) |
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The New Multiple-Mirror Telescope |
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718 | (3) |
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721 | (1) |
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721 | (3) |
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Truss Geometries for Minimal Gravitational and Wind Deflections |
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724 | (1) |
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725 | (4) |
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729 | (4) |
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Analysis of the Opto-Mechanical Design |
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733 | (1) |
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Failure Predictions for Optics |
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733 | (15) |
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733 | (2) |
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Testing to Determine Component Strength |
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735 | (5) |
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The Weibull Failure Prediction Method |
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740 | (2) |
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742 | (1) |
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Time-to-Failure Prediction |
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743 | (1) |
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Rule-of-Thumb Stress Tolerances |
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744 | (4) |
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Stress Generation at Opto-Mechanical Interfaces |
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748 | (14) |
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748 | (3) |
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751 | (5) |
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756 | (2) |
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The Sharp Corner Interface |
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758 | (1) |
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759 | (1) |
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759 | (2) |
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761 | (1) |
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762 | (1) |
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Parametric Comparisons of Annular Interface Types |
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762 | (2) |
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Bending Effects Due to Offset Annular Contacts |
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764 | (3) |
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Bending Stress in the Optical Component |
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765 | (2) |
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Change in Surface Sagittal Depth of a Bent Optic |
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767 | (1) |
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Effects of Temperature Changes |
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767 | (28) |
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Radial Effects at Reduced Temperature |
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768 | (1) |
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Radial Stress in the Optic |
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768 | (1) |
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Tangential (Hoop) Stress in the Mount Wall |
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769 | (1) |
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Radial Effects at Increased Temperature |
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770 | (1) |
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Changes in Axial Preload Caused by Temperature Changes |
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770 | (1) |
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770 | (2) |
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Approximation of K3 Considering Bulk Effects Only |
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772 | (6) |
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Approximation of K3 Considering Effects Other Than Bulk Effects |
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778 | (1) |
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Glass and Metal Surface Deflection Effects |
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779 | (1) |
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Retainer Deflection Effects |
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779 | (1) |
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Shoulder Deflection Effects |
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780 | (1) |
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Radial Dimension Change Effects |
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780 | (1) |
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Illustrative Examples of K3 Estimation |
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780 | (1) |
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Estimation of Tensile Contact Stresses in the Lens at Various Temperatures |
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781 | (3) |
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Advantages of Providing Controlled Axial Compliance in the Lens or Mirror Mount |
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784 | (11) |
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Effects of Temperature Gradients |
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795 | (5) |
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Radial Temperature Gradients |
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798 | (2) |
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Axial Temperature Gradients |
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800 | (1) |
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Stresses in Cemented and Bonded Optics Due to Temperature Changes |
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|
800 | (3) |
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Some Effects of Temperature Changes on Elastomerically Mounted Lenses |
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803 | (6) |
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806 | (3) |
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Appendix A Units and Their Conversion |
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|
809 | (18) |
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Appendix B Summary of Methods for Testing Optical Components and Optical Instruments under Adverse Environmental Conditions |
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B.1 Cold, Heat, Humidity Testing |
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
B.2 Mechanical Stress Testing |
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
B.4 Cold, Low Air Pressure Testing |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
B.7 High-Pressure, Low-Pressure, Immersion Testing |
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
B.9 Combined Sinusoidal Vibration, Dry Heat, or Cold Testing |
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
|
814 | (1) |
|
B.12 Combined Shock, Bump, or Free Fall, Dry Heat, or Cold Testing |
|
|
814 | (1) |
|
B.13 Dew, Hoarfrost, Ice Testing |
|
|
815 | (4) |
|
Appendix C Hardness of Materials |
|
|
|
|
817 | (2) |
|
|
|
D.1 Units of Measure and Abbreviations Used |
|
|
819 | (1) |
|
|
820 | (1) |
|
D.3 Greek Symbol Applications |
|
|
820 | (1) |
|
D.4 Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Other Terms |
|
|
820 | (7) |
Index |
|
827 | |