| Preface |
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xiii | |
| First Edition Preface |
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xv | |
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Chapter 1 Introduction to Plant Biochemistry |
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1 | (4) |
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Chapter 2 Approaches to Understanding Metabolic Pathways |
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5 | (32) |
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What We Need to Understand a Metabolic Pathway |
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5 | (2) |
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7 | (4) |
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11 | (3) |
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14 | (2) |
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Current Research Techniques Using a Range of Molecular Biology Approaches |
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16 | (1) |
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The Generation of Mutant Plants |
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16 | (1) |
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Plant Transformation Techniques |
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17 | (1) |
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Epigenetic Modification in Plants |
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18 | (4) |
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The Functional Identification of Unknown Genes Has Been a Major Biological Challenge |
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22 | (1) |
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The Impact of Metabolic Flux on Plant Metabolism |
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22 | (2) |
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Coarse and Fine Metabolic Control |
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24 | (4) |
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Metabolic Control Analysis Theory |
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28 | (2) |
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Compartmentation: Keeping Competitive Reactions Apart |
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30 | (2) |
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Understanding Plant Metabolism in the Individual Cell |
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32 | (1) |
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The Isolation of Organelles |
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32 | (1) |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (3) |
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Chapter 3 Plant Cell Structure |
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37 | (30) |
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Plant Organs and Tissues Consist of Communities of Cells |
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37 | (1) |
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Cell Structure is Defined by Membranes |
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38 | (6) |
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The Plasma Membrane: The Cell Boundary that Controls Transport Into and Out of the Cell |
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44 | (2) |
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Vacuoles and the Tonoplast Membrane |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (6) |
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Cell Walls Serve to Limit Osmotic Swelling of the Enclosed Protoplast |
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53 | (4) |
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The Nucleus Contains the Cell's Chromatin within a Highly Specialized Structure, the Nuclear Envelope |
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57 | (1) |
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Mitochondria Are Ubiquitous Organelles, Which Are the Site of Cellular Respiration |
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58 | (2) |
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Peroxisomes House Vital Biochemical Pathways for Many Plant Cell Processes |
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60 | (1) |
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Plastids Are an Integral Feature of All Plant Cells |
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61 | (4) |
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65 | (1) |
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65 | (2) |
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Chapter 4 Light Reactions of Photosynthesis |
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67 | (38) |
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Basic Features of the Photochemical Process |
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67 | (5) |
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Pigments Capture Light Energy and Convert it to a Flow of Electrons |
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72 | (4) |
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Photosystem II Splits Water to Form Protons and Oxygen and Reduces Plastoquinone to Plastoquinol |
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76 | (6) |
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The Q-Cycle Uses Plastoquinol to Pump Protons and Reduce Plastocyanin |
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82 | (3) |
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Photosystem I Catalyzes a Second Light Excitation Event |
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85 | (3) |
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ATP Synthase Utilizes the Proton Motive Force to Generate ATP |
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88 | (4) |
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Cyclic Photophosphorylation Generates ATP Independently of Water Oxidation and NADPH Formation |
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92 | (2) |
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Mechanisms for Adjusting to Erratic Solar Irradiation |
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94 | (6) |
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100 | (2) |
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102 | (3) |
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Chapter 5 Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation |
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105 | (50) |
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Photosynthetic Carbon Assimilation Produces Most of the Biomass on Earth |
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106 | (1) |
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Carbon Dioxide Enters the Leaf Through Stomata, but Water is also Lost in the Process |
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106 | (1) |
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Carbon Dioxide is Converted to Carbohydrates Using Energy Derived from Sunlight |
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106 | (2) |
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The Calvin--Benson Cycle is Used by All Photosynthetic Eukaryotes to Convert Carbon Dioxide to Carbohydrate |
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108 | (1) |
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Discovery of the Calvin--Benson Cycle |
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108 | (1) |
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There Are Three Phases in the Calvin--Benson Cycle |
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109 | (5) |
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Calvin--Benson Cycle Intermediates May Be Used to Make Other Photosynthetic Products |
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114 | (1) |
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The Calvin--Benson Cycle is Autocatalytic and Produces More Substrate Than It Consumes |
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114 | (2) |
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Calvin--Benson Cycle Activity and Light-Regulation |
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116 | (3) |
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Rubisco is a Highly Regulated Enzyme |
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119 | (3) |
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Rubisco Oxygenase: The Starting Point for the Photorespiratory Pathway |
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122 | (1) |
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The Photorespiratory Pathway Operates via Reactions in the Chloroplast, Peroxisome, and Mitochondria |
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122 | (5) |
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The Isolation and Analysis of Mutants and the Photorespiratory Pathway |
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127 | (1) |
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Photorespiration May Provide Essential Amino Acids and Protect against Environmental Stress |
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127 | (1) |
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Photorespiration Uses ATP and Reductant |
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127 | (1) |
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Photorespiration and the Loss of Photosynthetically Fixed Carbon |
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128 | (3) |
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Photorespiration is a Target for Modification to Improve Crop Productivity |
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131 | (1) |
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C4 Photosynthesis Reduces Photorespiratory Carbon Losses by Concentrating Carbon Dioxide Around Rubisco |
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132 | (1) |
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Spatial Separation of the Two Carboxylases Occurs in C4Leaves |
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132 | (2) |
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Stages of C4 Photosynthesis and Variations of the Basic Pathway |
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134 | (4) |
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Some of the C4 Pathway Enzymes Are Light-Regulated |
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138 | (1) |
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Decreasing Global Carbon Dioxide Concentrations Caused Rapid Evolution of C4 Photosynthesis |
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139 | (1) |
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C3--C4 Intermediate Species May Represent an Evolutionary Stage Between C3 and C4 Plants |
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140 | (1) |
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The C4 Pathway Can Exist in Single Cells of Some Species |
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140 | (2) |
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Crassulacean Acid Metabolism is a Photosynthetic Pathway Particularly Well-Suited to Arid Environments |
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142 | (1) |
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Temporal Separation of the Carboxylases in CAM |
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142 | (1) |
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Crassulacean Acid Metabolism as a Flexible Pathway |
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143 | (2) |
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Phosphoeno/pyruvate Carboxylase in Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Plants is Regulated by Protein Phosphorylation |
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145 | (1) |
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Crassulacean Acid Metabolism is Thought to Have Evolved Independently on Several Occasions |
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145 | (1) |
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C3, C4, and CAM Photosynthetic Pathways: Advantages and Disadvantages |
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146 | (4) |
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C3, C4, and CAM Plants Differ in Their Facility to Discriminate Between Different Isotopes of Carbon |
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150 | (1) |
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151 | (1) |
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152 | (3) |
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155 | (52) |
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156 | (1) |
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The Main Components of Plant Respiration |
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156 | (1) |
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Plants Need Energy and Precursors for Subsequent Biosynthesis |
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157 | (1) |
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Glycolysis is the Major Pathway That Fuels Respiration |
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157 | (3) |
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Hexose Sugars Enter into Glycolysis and Are Converted into Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate |
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160 | (1) |
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Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphate is Converted to Pyruvate |
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160 | (1) |
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Alternative Reactions Provide Flexibility to Plant Glycolysis |
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161 | (2) |
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Plant Glycolysis is Regulated by a Bottom-Up Process |
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163 | (1) |
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Metabolic Complex Formation (Metabolons) May Affect Glycolytic Flux |
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163 | (1) |
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Glycolysis Supplies Energy and Reducing Power for Biosynthetic Reactions |
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163 | (1) |
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The Availability of Oxygen Determines the Fate of Pyruvate |
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164 | (1) |
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The Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Pathway is an Alternative Catabolic Route for Glucose Metabolism |
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165 | (2) |
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The Irreversible Oxidative Decarboxylation of Glucose 6-Phosphate Generates NADPH |
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167 | (1) |
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The Second Stage of the Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Pathway Returns Any Excess Pentose Phosphates to Glycolysis |
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167 | (1) |
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All or Part of the OPPP is Duplicated in the Plastids and Cytosol |
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167 | (1) |
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The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle is Located in the Mitochondria |
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167 | (5) |
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Pyruvate Oxidation Marks the Link Between Glycolysis and the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle |
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172 | (5) |
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The Product of Pyruvate Oxidation, Acetyl CoA, Enters the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle via the Citrate Synthase Reaction |
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177 | (3) |
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Substrates for the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Are Derived Mainly from Carbohydrates |
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180 | (1) |
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The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Serves a Biosynthetic Function in Plants and Can Function in a Non-Cyclic Manner |
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181 | (3) |
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The TCA Cycle is Sensitive to Mitochondrial NADH/NAD+ and ATP/ADP Ratios |
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184 | (1) |
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A Thioredoxin/NADPH Redox System Regulates a Number of Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Enzymes and Other Mitochondrial Proteins |
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185 | (1) |
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The Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain Oxidizes Reducing Equivalents Produced in Respiratory Substrate Oxidation and Produces ATP |
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186 | (1) |
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There are Five Main Protein Complexes of the Electron Transport Chain |
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186 | (2) |
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Plant Mitochondria Possess Additional Respiratory Proteins That Provide a Branched Electron Transport Chain |
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188 | (1) |
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Plant Mitochondria Contain Four Additional NAD(P) H Dehydrogenases |
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189 | (1) |
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Plant Mitochondria Contain an Alternative Oxidase That Transfers Electrons from QH2 to Oxygen and Provides a Bypass of the Cytochrome Oxidase Branch |
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190 | (2) |
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The Alternative Oxidase is a Dimer of Two Identical Polypeptides with a Non-Heme Iron Center |
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192 | (1) |
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Alternative Oxidase Isoforms in Plants Are Encoded by Discrete Gene Families |
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193 | (1) |
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Alternative Oxidase Activity is Regulated by 2-Oxo Acids and by Reduction and Oxidation |
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193 | (1) |
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The Alternative Oxidase Adds Flexibility to the Operation of the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain |
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194 | (1) |
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The Alternative Oxidase May Prevent the Formation of Damaging Reactive Oxygen Species within the Mitochondria |
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194 | (1) |
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Alternative Oxidase Appears to Play a Role in the Response of Plants to Environmental Stresses |
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195 | (1) |
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Alternative Oxidase and NADH Oxidation Can Operate Under Low ADP/ATP |
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195 | (1) |
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Plant Mitochondria Contain Uncoupling Proteins |
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196 | (1) |
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ATP Synthesis in Plant Mitochondria is Coupled to the Proton Electrochemical Gradient That Forms During Electron Transport |
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196 | (5) |
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ATP Synthase Uses the Proton Motive Force to Generate ATP |
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201 | (1) |
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Mitochondrial Respiration Interacts with Photosynthesis and Photorespiration in the Light |
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202 | (2) |
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Supercomplexes May Form between Components of the Electron Transport Chain, but Their Physiological Significance Remains Uncertain |
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204 | (1) |
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204 | (1) |
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204 | (3) |
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Chapter 7 Synthesis and Mobilization of Storage and Structural Carbohydrates |
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207 | (44) |
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Role of Carbohydrate Metabolism in Higher Plants |
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208 | (1) |
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Sucrose is the Major Form of Carbohydrate Transported from Source to Sink Tissue |
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209 | (3) |
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Sucrose Phosphate Synthase is an Important Control Point in the Sucrose Biosynthetic Pathway in Plants |
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212 | (3) |
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Sensing, Signaling, and Regulation of Carbon Metabolism by Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate |
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215 | (1) |
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Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate Enables the Cell to Regulate the Operation of Multiple Pathways of Plant Carbohydrate Metabolism |
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215 | (2) |
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Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate as a Regulatory Link between the Chloroplast and the Cytosol |
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217 | (1) |
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Sucrose Breakdown Occurs via Sucrose Synthase and Invertase |
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217 | (4) |
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Starch is the Principal Storage Carbohydrate in Plants |
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221 | (2) |
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Starch Synthesis Occurs in Plastids of Both Source and Sink Tissues |
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223 | (4) |
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Starch Formation Occurs in Water-Insoluble Starch Granules in the Plastids |
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227 | (1) |
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The Composition and Structure of Starch Affects the Properties and Functions of Starches |
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228 | (2) |
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Starch Degradation Varies in Different Plant Organs |
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230 | (1) |
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The Nature and Regulation of Starch Degradation is Poorly Understood |
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231 | (1) |
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Transitory Starch is Remobilized Initially by a Starch Modifying Process That Takes Place at the Granule Surface during the Dark Period |
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232 | (1) |
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The Regulation of Starch Degradation is Unclear |
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232 | (1) |
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Fructans Are Probably the Most Abundant Storage Carbohydrates in Plants after Starch and Sucrose |
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233 | (1) |
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A Model Has Been Proposed for the Biosynthesis of the Different Fructan Molecules Found in Plants |
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233 | (1) |
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Fructan-Accumulating Plants Are Abundant in Temperate Climate Zones with Seasonal Drought or Frost |
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234 | (2) |
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Trehalose Biosynthesis is Not Just Limited to Resurrection Plants |
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236 | (1) |
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Trehalose Biosynthesis in Higher Plants and Its Role in the Regulation of Carbon Metabolism |
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236 | (1) |
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Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides |
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237 | (1) |
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Synthesis of Cell Wall Sugars and Polysaccharides |
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238 | (1) |
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239 | (3) |
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Matrix Components Consist of Branched Polysaccharides |
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242 | (5) |
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Expansins and Extensins, Proteins That Play Both Enzymatic and Structural Roles in Cell Expansion |
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247 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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248 | (1) |
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249 | (2) |
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Chapter 8 Nitrogen and Sulfur Metabolism |
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251 | (68) |
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Nitrogen and Sulfur Must Be Assimilated in the Plant |
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251 | (1) |
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Apart from Oxygen, Carbon, and Hydrogen, Nitrogen is the Most Abundant Element in Plants |
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252 | (1) |
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Nitrogen Fixation: Some Plants Obtain Nitrogen from the Atmosphere via a Symbiotic Association with Bacteria |
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253 | (3) |
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Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Involves a Complex Interaction between Host Plant and Microorganism |
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256 | (1) |
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Nodule-Forming Bacteria (Rhizobiaceae) Are Composed of the Three Genera Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium |
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256 | (2) |
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The Nodule Environment is Generated by Interaction between the Legume Plant Host and Rhizobia |
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258 | (1) |
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Nitrogen Fixation is Energy Expensive, Consuming Up to 20% of All Photosynthates Generated |
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259 | (1) |
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Mycorrhizae Are Associations Between Soil Fungi and Plant Roots That Can Enhance the Nitrogen Nutrition of the Plant |
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260 | (2) |
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Most Higher Plants Obtain Nitrogen from the Soil in the Form of Nitrate |
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262 | (1) |
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Higher Plants Have Multiple Nitrate Carriers with Distinct Properties and Regulation Mechanisms |
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263 | (1) |
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Nitrate Reductase Catalyzes the Reduction of Nitrate to Nitrite in the Cytosol of Root and Shoot Cells |
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264 | (1) |
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The Production of Nitrite is Rigidly Controlled by the Expression, Catalytic Activity, and Degradation of NR |
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265 | (3) |
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Nitrite Reductase, Localized in the Plastids, Catalyzes the Reduction of Nitrite to Ammonium |
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268 | (4) |
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Plant Cells Have the Capacity to Transport Ammonium Ions |
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272 | (1) |
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Ammonium is Assimilated into Amino Acids |
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272 | (8) |
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Sulfate is Relatively Abundant in the Environment and Serves as a Primary Sulfur Source for Plants |
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280 | (1) |
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The Assimilation of Sulfate |
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281 | (1) |
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Adenosine 5'-Phosphosulfate Reductase is Composed of Two Distinct Domains |
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282 | (1) |
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Sulfite Reductase is Similar in Structure to Nitrite Reductase |
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283 | (1) |
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Sulfation is an Alternative Minor Assimilation Pathway Incorporating Sulfate into Organic Compounds |
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283 | (1) |
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Amino Acid Biosynthesis is Essential for Plant Growth and Development |
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284 | (1) |
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Carbon Flow is Essential for Maintaining Amino Acid Production |
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285 | (1) |
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The Form of Nitrogen Transported Through the Xylem Differs across Species |
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286 | (2) |
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Aminotransferase Reactions Are Central to Amino Acid Metabolism as They Distribute Nitrogen from Glutamate to Other Amino Acids |
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288 | (1) |
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Asparagine, Aspartate, and Alanine Biosynthesis |
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289 | (1) |
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Glycine and Serine Biosynthesis |
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290 | (1) |
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The Aspartate Family of Amino Acids: Lysine, Threonine, isoieucine, and Methionine |
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290 | (3) |
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The Branched-Chain Amino Acids Valine and Leucine |
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293 | (1) |
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Sulfur-Containing Amino Acids Cysteine and Methionine |
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294 | (4) |
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Glutamine, Arginine, and Proline Biosynthesis |
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298 | (1) |
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The Biosynthesis of the Aromatic Amino Acids: Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, and Tryptophan |
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299 | (1) |
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299 | (1) |
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Large Amounts of Nitrogen Can Be Present in Non-Protein Amino Acids |
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299 | (2) |
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Plant Storage Proteins: Why Do Plants Store Proteins and What Sort of Proteins Do They Store? |
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301 | (1) |
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Vicilins and Legumins Are the Main Storage Proteins in Many Dicotyledonous Plants |
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302 | (2) |
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Prolamins Are Major Storage Proteins in Cereals and Grasses |
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304 | (5) |
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2S Albumins Are Important but Minor Components of Seed Proteins |
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309 | (1) |
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Where Are Seed Proteins Synthesized and How Do They Reach Their Storage Compartment? |
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310 | (1) |
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Protein Stores Are Degraded and Mobilized during Seed Germination |
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311 | (1) |
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Vegetative Organs Store Proteins, Which Are Very Different from Seed Proteins |
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312 | (1) |
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The Potato, a Major Temperate-Climate Crop |
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313 | (1) |
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Tropical Roots and Tubers: Sweet Potato, Yams, Taro, and Cassava |
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313 | (1) |
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Despite Their Diversity, Storage Proteins Share Common Characteristics |
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314 | (1) |
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315 | (1) |
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315 | (4) |
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Chapter 9 Lipid Biosynthesis |
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319 | (32) |
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319 | (3) |
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Fatty Acid Biosynthesis Occurs through the Sequential Addition of Two Carbon Units |
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322 | (2) |
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The Condensation of Nine Two-Carbon Units is Necessary for the Assembly of an 18C Fatty Acid |
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324 | |
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The Assembly of an 18C Fatty Acid from Acetyl CoA Using Type II Fatty Acid Synthase Requires 48 Reactions and the Involvement of at Least |
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12 | (316) |
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328 | (2) |
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Acyl-ACP Utilization in the Plastid |
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330 | (1) |
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Source of NADPH and ATP to Support Fatty Acid Biosynthesis |
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330 | (1) |
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Glyceroiipids Are Formed from the Incorporation of Fatty Acids to the Glycerol Backbone |
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330 | (2) |
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Phosphatidic Acid, Produced in the Plastids or Endoplasmic Reticulum, is a Central Intermediate in Glycerolipid Biosynthesis |
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332 | (1) |
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Lipids Function in Signaling and Defense |
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333 | (2) |
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The Products of the Oxidation of Lipids and the Resulting Metabolites Are Collectively Known as Oxylipins |
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335 | (2) |
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A Waxy Cuticle Coats All Land Plants |
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337 | (2) |
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Biosynthesis of Very-Long-Chain Fatty Acid Wax Precursors |
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339 | (1) |
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Role of Suberin as a Hydrophobic Layer |
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339 | (1) |
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Storage Lipids Are Primarily a Storage Form of Carbon and Chemical Energy |
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340 | (3) |
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Important Role of Transcriptional Regulation of Fatty Acid Biosynthesis in Oil Seeds |
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343 | (2) |
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Release of Fatty Acids from Acyl Lipids |
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345 | (1) |
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The Breakdown of Fatty Acids Occurs via Oxidation at the p Carbon and Subsequent Removal of Two Carbon Units |
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345 | (1) |
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346 | (2) |
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348 | (3) |
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351 | (30) |
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Plants Produce a Vast Array of Chemicals That Deter or Attract Other Organisms |
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351 | (1) |
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Alkaloids Are a Chemically Diverse Group That All Contain Nitrogen and a Number of Carbon Rings |
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352 | (1) |
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Alkaloids Are Widespread in the Plant Kingdom and Are Particularly Abundant in the Solanaceae |
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352 | (1) |
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Functions of Alkaloids in Plants and Animals |
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352 | (2) |
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The Challenges and Complexity of Alkaloid Biosynthetic Pathways |
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354 | (1) |
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Amino Acids as Precursors in the Biosynthesis of Alkaloids |
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354 | (2) |
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Terpenoid Indole Alkaloids Are Made from Tryptamine and the Terpenoid Secologanin |
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356 | (5) |
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Isoquinoline Alkaloids Are Produced from Tyrosine and Include Many Valuable Drugs such as Morphine and Codeine |
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361 | (4) |
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Tropane Alkaloids and Nicotine Are Found Mainly in the Solanaceae |
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365 | (5) |
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Pyrollizidine Alkaloids Are Found in Four Main Families |
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370 | (2) |
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Purine Alkaloids as Popular Stimulants and as Poisons and Feeding Deterrents against Herbivores |
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372 | (2) |
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The Diversity of Alkaloids Has Arisen through Evolution Driven by Herbivore Pressure |
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374 | (1) |
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Gene Duplication Followed by Mutation is Thought to Be a Major Factor in the Evolution of the Alkaloid Biosynthesis Pathways |
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375 | (2) |
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The Distribution of Enzymes between Different Cell Types Allows for Further Chemical Diversity |
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377 | (1) |
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There is No Simple Taxonomic Relationship in the Distribution of Different Classes of Alkaloids |
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377 | (1) |
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378 | (1) |
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378 | (3) |
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381 | (42) |
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Plant Phenolic Compounds Are a Diverse Group with a Common Aromatic Ring Structure and a Range of Biological Functions |
|
|
381 | (5) |
|
The Simple Phenolics Include Simple Phenylpropanoids, Coumarins, and Benzoic Acid Derivatives |
|
|
386 | (1) |
|
The More Complex Phenolics Include the Flavonoids, Which Have a Characteristic Three-Membered A-, B-, C-Ring Structure |
|
|
387 | (4) |
|
Lignin is a Complex Polymer Formed Mainly from Monolignol Units |
|
|
391 | (1) |
|
The Tannins Are Phenolic Polymers That Form Complexes with Proteins |
|
|
391 | (1) |
|
Most Plant Phenolics Are Synthesized from Phenylpropanoids |
|
|
392 | (1) |
|
The Shikimic Acid Pathway Provides the Aromatic Amino Acid Phenylalanine from Which the Phenylpropanoids Are All Derived |
|
|
393 | (4) |
|
The Shikimic Acid Pathway is Regulated by Substrate Supply and End-Product Inhibition and is Affected by Wounding and Pathogen Attack |
|
|
397 | (1) |
|
The Core Phenylpropanoid Pathway Provides the Basic Phenylpropanoid Units That Are Used to Make Most of the Phenolic Compounds in Plants |
|
|
397 | (6) |
|
Flavonoids Are Produced from Chalcones, Formed from the Condensation of p-Coumaroyl CoA and Malonyl CoA |
|
|
403 | (11) |
|
Simple Phenolics from the Basic Phenylpropanoid Pathway Are Used in the Biosynthesis of the Hydrolyzable Tannins |
|
|
414 | (1) |
|
Lignin is a Complex Polymer Formed from Subunits That Are Synthesized from Phenylalanine in the General Phenylpropanoid Pathway |
|
|
415 | (4) |
|
|
|
419 | (1) |
|
|
|
420 | (3) |
|
|
|
423 | (36) |
|
Terpenoids Are a Diverse Group of Essential Oils That Are Formed from the Fusion of Five-Carbon Isoprene Units |
|
|
423 | (3) |
|
Terpenoids Serve a Wide Range of Biological Functions |
|
|
426 | (12) |
|
The Biosynthesis of Terpenoids |
|
|
438 | (1) |
|
Stage 1 Formation of the Core Five-Carbon Isopentenyl Diphosphate Unit Can Occur via Two Distinct Pathways: The Mevalonic Acid (MVA) Pathway and the Methylerythritol 4-Phosphate (MEP) Pathway |
|
|
438 | (6) |
|
Stage 2 Prenyltransferases Combine the Five-Carbon IPP and DMAPP Units to Form a Range of Terpenoid Precursors |
|
|
444 | (2) |
|
Stage 3 Terpene Synthases Convert the Terpenoid Precursors GPP, FPP, and GGPP into the Basic Terpenoid Groups |
|
|
446 | (7) |
|
Stage 4 The Modification of the Basic Terpenoid Skeletons Produces a Vast Array of Terpenoid Products |
|
|
453 | (1) |
|
Subcellular Compartmentation is Important in the Regulation of Terpenoid Biosynthesis |
|
|
454 | (1) |
|
|
|
455 | (1) |
|
|
|
455 | (4) |
| Index |
|
459 | |
