Preface |
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x | |
Abbreviations |
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xix | |
Glossary |
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xxi | |
Table of Statutes |
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xxix | |
Table of Statutory Instruments |
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xxxi | |
Table of European Legislation |
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xxxiii | |
Table of Cases |
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xxxvii | |
Chapter 1 Introduction to Taxation |
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1 | (23) |
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1 | (1) |
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Why governments levy taxes |
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2 | (1) |
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2 | (2) |
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Evaluating taxes and tax systems |
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4 | (1) |
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4 | (1) |
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4 | (1) |
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5 | (5) |
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5 | (2) |
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7 | (1) |
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7 | (1) |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (1) |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (1) |
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Compliance and administrative costs |
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12 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (1) |
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14 | (1) |
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Tax avoidance and evasion |
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15 | (2) |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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19 | (1) |
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Some non-tax legal issues |
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19 | (2) |
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21 | (1) |
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21 | (3) |
Chapter 2 Introduction to International Taxation |
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24 | (31) |
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24 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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Jurisdiction to tax and public international law |
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25 | (1) |
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Essential concepts: residence and source |
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26 | (2) |
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International tax principles |
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28 | (6) |
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Fundamental 1: Tax should not impede international trade |
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28 | (3) |
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Fundamental 2: Tax follows connection |
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31 | (3) |
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34 | (1) |
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Tax planning in multinational enterprises |
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34 | (4) |
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Federal systems and local-level taxes |
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37 | (1) |
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38 | (1) |
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Role of supranational organizations |
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39 | (2) |
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41 | (1) |
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Collection from non-residents |
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42 | (1) |
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Recognition of foreign entities |
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42 | (1) |
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43 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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44 | (1) |
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Globalization of business |
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45 | (4) |
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What makes BEPS activity possible? |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (2) |
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49 | (1) |
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50 | (1) |
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51 | (1) |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (3) |
Chapter 3 The Right to Tax Individuals |
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55 | (12) |
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55 | (1) |
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55 | (1) |
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Approaches to determining tax residence |
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56 | (2) |
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Time spent in a particular country |
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56 | (1) |
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Connections with a particular country |
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57 | (1) |
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Residence rules adopted for other purposes |
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57 | (1) |
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Citizenship by investment |
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57 | (1) |
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58 | (1) |
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Consequences of tax residence |
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58 | (1) |
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59 | (1) |
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60 | (6) |
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60 | (1) |
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61 | (2) |
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63 | (1) |
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63 | (1) |
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64 | (1) |
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64 | (1) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (1) |
Chapter 4 The Right to Tax Companies |
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67 | (19) |
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67 | (1) |
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67 | (1) |
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Approaches to determining tax residence of companies |
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68 | (12) |
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'Central management and control' - the case law basis |
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69 | (3) |
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More recent case law on central management and control |
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72 | (5) |
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Comparative approaches to company residence |
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77 | (3) |
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Effect of digital communications |
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80 | (1) |
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Company residence and DTTs: the tie-breaker tests |
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80 | (4) |
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84 | (2) |
Chapter 5 The Double Tax Problem |
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86 | (16) |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (9) |
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Choosing between methods of double tax relief |
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93 | (4) |
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97 | (1) |
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98 | (3) |
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101 | (1) |
Chapter 6 Double Tax Relief in Practice |
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102 | (15) |
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102 | (1) |
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Variations on the credit method |
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103 | (4) |
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104 | (1) |
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Problems with the credit method |
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105 | (2) |
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Variations on the exemption method |
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107 | (2) |
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Exemption with participation |
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107 | (1) |
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Exemption with progression |
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108 | (1) |
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Exemption method in practice |
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109 | (3) |
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From credit to exemption method: Japan |
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112 | (1) |
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From credit to exemption method - the UK tax |
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113 | (1) |
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Credit method as a disincentive to locate a holding company in the UK |
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113 | (1) |
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114 | (3) |
Chapter 7 Double Tax Treaties |
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117 | (60) |
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117 | (1) |
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118 | (2) |
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Brief History of double tax treaties |
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120 | (1) |
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Relationship to domestic law |
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121 | (1) |
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Creation of a double tax treaty |
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122 | (3) |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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123 | (1) |
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Protocols to double tax treaties |
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123 | (1) |
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The Multilateral Instrument |
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124 | (1) |
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The OECD Model Tax Convention |
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125 | (5) |
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127 | (2) |
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129 | (1) |
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Allocating the right to tax |
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130 | (1) |
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Main articles in the OECD MTC |
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131 | (29) |
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131 | (1) |
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Article 1: Persons covered |
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131 | (1) |
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131 | (1) |
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Article 3: General definitions |
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132 | (1) |
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132 | (2) |
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Articles 5 and 7: Taxation of business profits |
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134 | (1) |
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Article 6: Income from immovable property |
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135 | (1) |
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Article 8: International transport |
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135 | (1) |
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Article 9: Associated enterprises |
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135 | (1) |
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136 | (5) |
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141 | (1) |
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142 | (2) |
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Article 13: Capital gains |
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144 | (2) |
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Article 14: Independent personal services |
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146 | (1) |
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Article 15: Income from employment |
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147 | (1) |
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Article 16: Directors' fees |
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147 | (1) |
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Article 17: Entertainers and sportspersons |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (1) |
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Article 19: Government service |
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149 | (1) |
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149 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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150 | (1) |
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Article 23: Double tax relief |
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151 | (2) |
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Article 24: Non-discrimination |
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153 | (1) |
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Article 25: Mutual agreement procedure |
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153 | (3) |
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Article 26: Exchange of information |
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156 | (3) |
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Article 27: Assistance in the collection of taxes |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (1) |
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Article 29: Entitlement to Benefits |
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160 | (1) |
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'Most favoured nation' articles |
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160 | (1) |
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Interpretation of tax treaties |
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161 | (6) |
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Significance of the OECD Commentary |
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162 | (2) |
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What definitions should be used? |
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164 | (2) |
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The 'competent authority' process |
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166 | (1) |
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Double tax treaty override - further detailed consideration |
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167 | (3) |
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Remedies available if a state overrides its treaties |
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169 | (1) |
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Tax treaty override by the United States |
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169 | (1) |
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Use of multilateral treaties |
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170 | (1) |
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The future of tax treaties |
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170 | (1) |
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170 | (2) |
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172 | (5) |
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Interpretation of tax treaties |
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172 | (5) |
Chapter 8 Internationally Mobile Employees |
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177 | (12) |
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177 | (1) |
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178 | (1) |
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179 | (1) |
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Article 15 of the OECD Model |
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179 | (4) |
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International hiring out of labour |
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180 | (2) |
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International hiring out of labour - UK position |
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182 | (1) |
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International hiring out of labour - China |
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183 | (1) |
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International ship, boat and aircraft crew |
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183 | (1) |
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Remunerating internationally mobile employees |
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183 | (1) |
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184 | (1) |
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185 | (2) |
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Tax equalization arrangements |
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185 | (1) |
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Social security arrangements |
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186 | (1) |
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187 | (2) |
Chapter 9 Permanent Establishments |
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189 | (47) |
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189 | (2) |
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191 | (2) |
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193 | (7) |
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What is meant by 'fixed'? |
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194 | (1) |
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195 | (1) |
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195 | (2) |
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197 | (1) |
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Is it 'at the disposal' of the foreign enterprise? |
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198 | (1) |
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Fixed place of business: examples |
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199 | (1) |
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200 | (3) |
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200 | (1) |
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201 | (2) |
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'Preparatory or auxiliary' activities |
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203 | (4) |
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The anti-fragmentation rule |
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205 | (2) |
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207 | (6) |
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207 | (2) |
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209 | (1) |
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Commissionaire arrangements |
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210 | (2) |
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212 | (1) |
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UN MTC: fixed place of business |
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213 | (1) |
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The 'services' permanent establishment |
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213 | (1) |
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Dependent agent under the UN Model |
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213 | (1) |
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214 | (1) |
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Attribution of Profits to PEs |
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214 | (11) |
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215 | (1) |
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The Authorised OECD Approach (AOA) |
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216 | (1) |
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Step 1: the functional and factual analysis |
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217 | (2) |
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Step 2: allocating profits to the PE |
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219 | (3) |
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222 | (1) |
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Allocation of profits to dependent agent PEs |
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223 | (1) |
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The UN Model - 'force of attraction' principle |
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224 | (1) |
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PE - an outdated concept? |
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225 | (4) |
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226 | (3) |
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229 | (2) |
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231 | (5) |
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Commissionnaire Arrangements |
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231 | (5) |
Chapter 10 Taxation of Cross-border Services |
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236 | (26) |
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236 | (1) |
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Cross-border trade in services |
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237 | (1) |
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Types of cross-border services |
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238 | (3) |
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Possible tax treatment of cross-border services |
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239 | (1) |
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Withholding tax on payments for services |
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240 | (1) |
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241 | (1) |
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241 | (8) |
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How Article 5 applies to services |
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242 | (1) |
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The services PE and the independent personal services Article in the UN MTC |
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243 | (2) |
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The services PE in the OECD Commentary |
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245 | (4) |
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'Same or connected projects' |
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249 | (1) |
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250 | (2) |
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Place of performance of the services |
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251 | (1) |
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Location where services are utilized |
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251 | (1) |
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A base erosion approach: the place of payment |
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252 | (1) |
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Services in 'construction' PEs |
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252 | (2) |
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254 | (1) |
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Royalties or technical service fees? |
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255 | (4) |
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258 | (1) |
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Interaction of articles concerning services |
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259 | (1) |
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260 | (2) |
Chapter 11 Introduction to Tax Havens |
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262 | (20) |
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262 | (1) |
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Rationale for the use of tax havens |
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263 | (4) |
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264 | (2) |
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266 | (1) |
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Growth of the offshore financial sector |
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267 | (7) |
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267 | (2) |
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269 | (1) |
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270 | (2) |
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Tax havens and the UK government |
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272 | (1) |
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Tax havens and the US government |
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272 | (1) |
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Tax havens and tax evasion |
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273 | (1) |
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Which countries are tax havens? |
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274 | (4) |
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274 | (1) |
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The Tax Justice Network Corporate Tax Haven Index |
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275 | (1) |
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NGO estimates of haven usage |
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275 | (3) |
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278 | (1) |
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279 | (3) |
Chapter 12 Foreign Expansion: Structure and Location |
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282 | (17) |
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282 | (1) |
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Choosing the business structure |
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283 | (15) |
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Structuring: using a foreign branch |
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283 | (2) |
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Structuring: using a foreign subsidiary |
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285 | (3) |
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288 | (1) |
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Host country considerations |
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289 | (2) |
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Converting a branch into a subsidiary |
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291 | (3) |
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The US 'check the box' rules |
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294 | (4) |
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298 | (1) |
Chapter 13 Finance and Treasury Management |
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299 | (16) |
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299 | (2) |
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Financing multinational enterprises |
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301 | (10) |
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302 | (4) |
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The Group treasury function |
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306 | (1) |
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Foreign exchange exposure |
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307 | (1) |
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Maximizing deductible interest: basic strategies |
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307 | (1) |
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Effect of tax incentives/special tax regimes |
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308 | (1) |
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Effect of double tax relief by credit |
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309 | (2) |
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General tax treaty issues |
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311 | (2) |
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313 | (2) |
Chapter 14 Transfer Pricing Practice |
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315 | (39) |
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315 | (1) |
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Introduction and key principles |
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316 | (3) |
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Scale of transfer pricing |
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317 | (1) |
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The basic problem illustrated |
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318 | (1) |
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319 | (1) |
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A very brief history of transfer pricing legislation |
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320 | (1) |
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321 | (1) |
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322 | (4) |
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323 | (3) |
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326 | (13) |
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Transaction based methods |
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326 | (3) |
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329 | (1) |
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Transactional profits-based methods |
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330 | (7) |
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337 | (2) |
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339 | (1) |
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340 | (5) |
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Hard to value intangibles |
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341 | (1) |
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Cost contribution arrangements |
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341 | (3) |
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344 | (1) |
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Low value-adding intragroup services |
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345 | (1) |
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Industry focus - the pharmaceutical industry |
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345 | (2) |
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346 | (1) |
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347 | (1) |
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Validity of the arm's length principle |
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347 | (1) |
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Global formulary apportionment |
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348 | (3) |
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351 | (3) |
Chapter 15 Transfer Pricing Administration |
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354 | (15) |
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354 | (1) |
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354 | (1) |
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Transfer pricing documentation requirements |
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355 | (1) |
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Country by country reporting |
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356 | (2) |
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International Compliance Assurance Process |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (6) |
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Mutual Agreement Procedure |
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361 | (2) |
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The EU Arbitration Convention and transfer pricing |
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363 | (2) |
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365 | (1) |
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Advance pricing agreements |
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365 | (2) |
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Contents of an advance pricing agreement request |
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366 | (1) |
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Stages in the negotiation |
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366 | (1) |
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367 | (2) |
Chapter 16 Tax Avoidance, BEPS and beyond |
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369 | (24) |
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369 | (1) |
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370 | (1) |
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The emergence of the BEPS project |
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370 | (7) |
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371 | (1) |
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Early evidence of base erosion and profit shifting |
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372 | (2) |
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374 | (1) |
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Implementing BEPS measures |
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375 | (2) |
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377 | (1) |
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378 | (3) |
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Issues identified in BEPS Action 1 |
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378 | (3) |
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381 | (5) |
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A digital redistribution: OECD Pillar One |
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382 | (2) |
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Unilateral measures for digital services |
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384 | (2) |
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A Global Minimum Tax: OECD Pillar Two |
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386 | (1) |
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Alternatives to the current system |
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387 | (1) |
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Residual Profit Allocation by Income |
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387 | (1) |
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Global formulary apportionment |
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388 | (1) |
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Destination Based Corporation Tax |
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388 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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389 | (4) |
Chapter 17 Anti-avoidance rules: Structure |
|
393 | (32) |
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393 | (2) |
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CFC legislation - introduction |
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395 | (4) |
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How CFC legislation works |
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|
396 | (1) |
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Parent company v foreign to foreign 'base-stripping' |
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397 | (1) |
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Brief History of CFC legislation |
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398 | (1) |
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General approach to CFC legislation |
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399 | (1) |
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CFC legislation in practice |
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|
400 | (5) |
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When is a foreign company a CFC? |
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400 | (1) |
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Level of foreign income or tax |
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|
401 | (1) |
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402 | (3) |
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405 | (3) |
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Legality of CFC legislation |
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408 | (1) |
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Captive insurance companies |
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409 | (2) |
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410 | (1) |
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Cross-border entity arbitrage |
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411 | (5) |
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412 | (1) |
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Consequences of using hybrid entities |
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412 | (4) |
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Preventing entity arbitrage |
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416 | (5) |
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BEPS Action 2: domestic proposals |
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|
417 | (1) |
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|
417 | (2) |
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Rules for hybrid entities |
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|
419 | (2) |
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Application of CFC rules to hybrid entities |
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|
421 | (1) |
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|
422 | (1) |
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|
423 | (2) |
Chapter 18 Anti-avoidance rules: Finance |
|
425 | (23) |
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|
425 | (1) |
|
Restrictions on interest deductions |
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|
425 | (12) |
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|
427 | (1) |
|
Thin capitalization rules |
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|
427 | (2) |
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|
429 | (1) |
|
BEPS proposals for limiting deductions for interest |
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|
429 | (8) |
|
Hybrid financial instruments |
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|
437 | (7) |
|
The PepsiCo Puerto Rico case |
|
|
440 | (4) |
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|
444 | (3) |
|
Anti-arbitrage domestic laws |
|
|
444 | (3) |
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|
447 | (1) |
Chapter 19 Improper Use of Treaties |
|
448 | (35) |
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|
448 | (2) |
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|
450 | (4) |
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|
452 | (2) |
|
Countering treaty shopping |
|
|
454 | (13) |
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|
456 | (1) |
|
2. Limitation on benefits rule |
|
|
456 | (7) |
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|
463 | (3) |
|
|
466 | (1) |
|
|
467 | (2) |
|
Use of the beneficial ownership approach |
|
|
468 | (1) |
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|
469 | (2) |
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|
471 | (8) |
|
Beneficial ownership - Selected Cases |
|
|
471 | (8) |
|
Before BEPS: Use of domestic GAAR |
|
|
479 | (4) |
|
The India-Mauritius Double Tax Treaty |
|
|
479 | (3) |
|
Future of the India-Mauritius Treaty for investment into India |
|
|
482 | (1) |
Chapter 20 European Corporation Tax Issues |
|
483 | (34) |
|
|
483 | (1) |
|
|
483 | (2) |
|
EU principles affecting tax issues |
|
|
485 | (3) |
|
The 'fundamental freedoms' |
|
|
485 | (1) |
|
Constitutional issues in the EU |
|
|
486 | (2) |
|
|
488 | (4) |
|
|
488 | (1) |
|
|
489 | (3) |
|
|
492 | (10) |
|
|
492 | (2) |
|
Parent/Subsidiary Directive |
|
|
494 | (1) |
|
Interest and Royalties Directive |
|
|
495 | (1) |
|
Mutual Assistance for the Recovery of Tax Claims Directive |
|
|
496 | (1) |
|
Directive on Administrative Cooperation in the Field of Taxation (DAC) |
|
|
497 | (3) |
|
Anti-Tax Avoidance Directive (ATAD) |
|
|
500 | (2) |
|
Dispute Resolution Directive |
|
|
502 | (1) |
|
|
502 | (2) |
|
|
504 | (4) |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
EU Tax Transparency Package |
|
|
504 | (1) |
|
Action Plan for Fair and Efficient Corporate Tax in the EU |
|
|
505 | (1) |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
Report on financial crimes, tax evasion and tax avoidance |
|
|
506 | (1) |
|
Business Taxation for the Twenty-first Century |
|
|
507 | (1) |
|
|
508 | (3) |
|
|
511 | (6) |
|
Common consolidated corporate tax base |
|
|
511 | (6) |
Chapter 21 Indirect Taxes |
|
517 | (38) |
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
How value added tax works |
|
|
518 | (3) |
|
|
521 | (1) |
|
Cross-border trade and value added tax |
|
|
521 | (8) |
|
An international framework: the OECD's Guidelines |
|
|
522 | (1) |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Exports of goods in a destination system - 'place of supply'? |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Imports of goods in a destination system - the 'reverse charge' system |
|
|
525 | (3) |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
Postponement of import value added tax on goods |
|
|
528 | (1) |
|
Cross-border supplies of goods within the EU |
|
|
529 | (3) |
|
Intra-Community supplies of goods: the 'transitional' regime |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
Multiple registration problem |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
VAT on cross-border supplies of services |
|
|
533 | (6) |
|
|
533 | (6) |
|
Supplies of services within the EU |
|
|
539 | (4) |
|
EU rules on supply of B2B services |
|
|
539 | (1) |
|
B2B services connected with land |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Place of supply: B2B transport services |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
EU rules on supply of B2C services |
|
|
541 | (1) |
|
|
542 | (1) |
|
|
543 | (1) |
|
EU Missing Trader Intra-Community fraud |
|
|
543 | (4) |
|
Missing Trader Intra-Community fraud: simple acquisition fraud |
|
|
544 | (1) |
|
Missing Trader Intra-Community fraud: involving a non-EU country |
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
Approaches to tackling Missing Trader Intra-Community fraud |
|
|
545 | (2) |
|
Customs and excise duties |
|
|
547 | (5) |
|
|
547 | (1) |
|
|
548 | (1) |
|
Issues common to both customs and excise duties |
|
|
549 | (3) |
|
|
552 | (3) |
Chapter 22 Tackling Tax Evasion |
|
555 | (32) |
|
|
555 | (2) |
|
Economic and political sanctions |
|
|
557 | (1) |
|
Information exchange and transparency |
|
|
558 | (2) |
|
Bilateral tax information exchange agreements |
|
|
559 | (1) |
|
|
560 | (4) |
|
The 'internationally agreed standard' |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
The OECD Common Reporting Standard |
|
|
562 | (2) |
|
Multilateral Competent Authority Agreement |
|
|
564 | (1) |
|
The US Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act |
|
|
565 | (3) |
|
Intergovernmental Agreements |
|
|
567 | (1) |
|
Automatic exchange of information |
|
|
568 | (3) |
|
The OECD/Council of Europe Multilateral Convention on Mutual Administrative Assistance in Tax Matters |
|
|
569 | (2) |
|
Exchange of information and tax transparency within the EU |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
EU-Switzerland Tax Transparency Agreement |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
|
572 | (3) |
|
Comparing FATCA with the OECD's Common Reporting Standard and the DAC |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Offshore voluntary disclosure programmes |
|
|
575 | (6) |
|
|
577 | (1) |
|
The US Offshore Voluntary Disclosure Programs |
|
|
577 | (2) |
|
The problem with voluntary disclosure programmes |
|
|
579 | (2) |
|
Action against intermediaries |
|
|
581 | (3) |
|
|
582 | (1) |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
|
584 | (3) |
Chapter 23 Tax and Development |
|
587 | (21) |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
|
587 | (1) |
|
Tax policy in developing countries |
|
|
588 | (3) |
|
Tax expenditures in developing countries |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
Attracting FDI with tax incentives |
|
|
591 | (5) |
|
Reduced CIT rates and tax holidays |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
Investment allowances and credits |
|
|
594 | (1) |
|
Administration of tax incentives |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
What do host governments hope to achieve? |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
Tax competition and development |
|
|
596 | (1) |
|
International tax and developing countries |
|
|
596 | (3) |
|
|
598 | (1) |
|
|
599 | (1) |
|
Residence country dilution of tax incentives |
|
|
599 | (2) |
|
BEPS and developing countries |
|
|
601 | (2) |
|
Digitalisation and Development |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
|
605 | (3) |
Appendix Articles of the OECD Model Tax Convention on Income and Capital |
|
608 | (25) |
Index |
|
633 | |