Preface |
|
xvii | |
|
PART I INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS |
|
|
|
1 Introduction to Crystals and Current Carriers in Semiconductors: The Atomic-Bond Model |
|
|
1 | (36) |
|
1.1 Introduction to Crystals |
|
|
2 | (14) |
|
|
2 | (4) |
|
1.1.2 Three-Dimensional Crystals |
|
|
6 | (7) |
|
1.1.3 Two-Dimensional Crystals: Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes |
|
|
13 | (3) |
|
|
16 | (10) |
|
1.2.1 Two Types of Current Carrier in Semiconductors |
|
|
16 | (3) |
|
1.2.2 N-Type and P-Type Doping |
|
|
19 | (2) |
|
1.2.3 Electroneutrality Equation |
|
|
21 | (1) |
|
1.2.4 Electron and Hole Generation and Recombination in Thermal Equilibrium |
|
|
22 | (4) |
|
1.3 Basics of Crystal Growth and Doping Techniques |
|
|
26 | (11) |
|
1.3.1 Crystal-Growth Techniques |
|
|
26 | (2) |
|
|
28 | (3) |
|
|
31 | (2) |
|
|
33 | (2) |
|
|
35 | (2) |
|
|
37 | (69) |
|
|
38 | (13) |
|
2.1.1 De Broglie Relationship Between Particle and Wave Properties |
|
|
38 | (1) |
|
2.1.2 Wave Function and Wave Packet |
|
|
39 | (5) |
|
2.1.3 Schrodinger Equation |
|
|
44 | (7) |
|
2.2 Energy Levels in Atoms and Energy Bands in Crystals |
|
|
51 | (9) |
|
|
51 | (2) |
|
2.2.2 Energy Bands in Metals |
|
|
53 | (2) |
|
2.2.3 Energy Gap and Energy Bands in Semiconductors and Insulators |
|
|
55 | (5) |
|
2.3 Electrons and Holes as Particles |
|
|
60 | (12) |
|
2.3.1 Effective Mass and Real E-k Diagrams |
|
|
60 | (4) |
|
2.3.2 The Question of Electron Size: The Uncertainty Principle |
|
|
64 | (4) |
|
2.3.3 Density of Electron States |
|
|
68 | (4) |
|
2.4 Population of Electron States: Concentrations of Electrons and Holes |
|
|
72 | (34) |
|
2.4.1 Fermi-Dirac Distribution |
|
|
73 | (5) |
|
2.4.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann Approximation and Effective Density of States |
|
|
78 | (6) |
|
2.4.3 Fermi Potential and Doping |
|
|
84 | (9) |
|
2.4.4 Nonequilibrium Carrier Concentrations and Quasi-Fermi Levels |
|
|
93 | (1) |
|
|
94 | (5) |
|
|
99 | (4) |
|
|
103 | (3) |
|
|
106 | (34) |
|
3.1 Energy Bands With Applied Electric Field |
|
|
106 | (3) |
|
3.1.1 Energy-Band Presentation of Drift Current |
|
|
107 | (2) |
|
3.1.2 Resistance and Power Dissipation Due to Carrier Scattering |
|
|
109 | (1) |
|
3.2 Ohm's Law, Sheet Resistance, and Conductivity |
|
|
109 | (12) |
|
3.2.1 Designing Integrated-Circuit Resistors |
|
|
110 | (6) |
|
3.2.2 Differential Form of Ohm's Law |
|
|
116 | (3) |
|
3.2.3 Conductivity Ingredients |
|
|
119 | (2) |
|
|
121 | (19) |
|
3.3.1 Thermal and Drift Velocities |
|
|
121 | (3) |
|
3.3.2 Mobility Definition |
|
|
124 | (1) |
|
3.3.3 Scattering Time and Scattering Cross Section |
|
|
125 | (2) |
|
|
127 | (5) |
|
|
132 | (2) |
|
|
134 | (1) |
|
|
135 | (3) |
|
|
138 | (2) |
|
|
140 | (18) |
|
4.1 Diffusion-Current Equation |
|
|
140 | (3) |
|
4.2 Diffusion Coefficient |
|
|
143 | (6) |
|
4.2.1 Einstein Relationship |
|
|
143 | (4) |
|
4.2.2 Haynes-Shockley Experiment |
|
|
147 | (1) |
|
|
148 | (1) |
|
4.3 Basic Continuity Equation |
|
|
149 | (9) |
|
|
154 | (1) |
|
|
155 | (2) |
|
|
157 | (1) |
|
5 Generation and Recombination |
|
|
158 | (36) |
|
5.1 Generation and Recombination Mechanisms |
|
|
158 | (3) |
|
5.2 General Form of the Continuity Equation |
|
|
161 | (6) |
|
5.2.1 Recombination and Generation Rates |
|
|
161 | (2) |
|
5.2.2 Minority-Carrier Lifetime |
|
|
163 | (3) |
|
|
166 | (1) |
|
5.3 Generation and Recombination Physics and Shockley-Read-Hall (Srh) Theory |
|
|
167 | (27) |
|
5.3.1 Capture and Emission Rates in Thermal Equilibrium |
|
|
168 | (3) |
|
5.3.2 Steady-State Equation for the Effective Thermal Generation-Recombination Rate |
|
|
171 | (6) |
|
|
177 | (6) |
|
5.3.4 Surface Generation and Recombination |
|
|
183 | (5) |
|
|
188 | (2) |
|
|
190 | (2) |
|
|
192 | (2) |
|
PART II FUNDAMENTAL DEVICE STRUCTURES |
|
|
|
|
194 | (58) |
|
6.1 P-N Junction Principles |
|
|
194 | (13) |
|
6.1.1 P-N Junction in Thermal Equilibrium |
|
|
194 | (4) |
|
6.1.2 Reverse-Biased P-N Junction |
|
|
198 | (3) |
|
6.1.3 Forward-Biased P-N Junction |
|
|
201 | (2) |
|
6.1.4 Breakdown Phenomena |
|
|
203 | (4) |
|
|
207 | (14) |
|
6.2.1 Basic Current-Voltage (I-V) Equation |
|
|
207 | (9) |
|
6.2.2 Important Second-Order Effects |
|
|
216 | (4) |
|
6.2.3 Temperature Effects |
|
|
220 | (1) |
|
6.3 Capacitance of Reverse-Biased P-N Junction |
|
|
221 | (16) |
|
|
222 | (1) |
|
6.3.2 Depletion-Layer Width: Solving the Poisson Equation |
|
|
223 | (13) |
|
6.3.3 Spice Model for the Depletion-Layer Capacitance |
|
|
236 | (1) |
|
6.4 Stored-Charge Effects |
|
|
237 | (15) |
|
6.4.1 Stored Charge and Transit Time |
|
|
237 | (1) |
|
6.4.2 Relationship Between the Transit Time and the Minority-Carrier Lifetime |
|
|
237 | (2) |
|
6.4.3 Switching Characteristics: Reverse-Recovery Time |
|
|
239 | (2) |
|
|
241 | (3) |
|
|
244 | (6) |
|
|
250 | (2) |
|
7 Metal-Semiconductor Contact and MOS Capacitor |
|
|
252 | (44) |
|
7.1 Metal-Semiconductor Contact |
|
|
253 | (9) |
|
7.1.1 Schottky Diode: Rectifying Metal-Semiconductor Contact |
|
|
253 | (8) |
|
7.1.2 Ohmic Metal-Semiconductor Contacts |
|
|
261 | (1) |
|
|
262 | (34) |
|
7.2.1 Properties of the Gate Oxide and the Oxide-Semiconductor Interface |
|
|
263 | (4) |
|
7.2.2 C-V Curve and the Surface-Potential Dependence on Gate Voltage |
|
|
267 | (8) |
|
7.2.3 Energy-Band Diagrams |
|
|
275 | (11) |
|
7.2.4 Flat-Band Capacitance and Debye Length |
|
|
286 | (3) |
|
|
289 | (2) |
|
|
291 | (3) |
|
|
294 | (2) |
|
|
296 | (54) |
|
|
296 | (16) |
|
|
296 | (3) |
|
8.1.2 Mosfet as a Voltage-Controlled Switch |
|
|
299 | (5) |
|
8.1.3 The Threshold Voltage and the Body Effect |
|
|
304 | (4) |
|
8.1.4 Mosfet as a Voltage-Controlled Current Source: Mechanisms of Current Saturation |
|
|
308 | (4) |
|
8.2 Principal Current-Voltage Characteristics and Equations |
|
|
312 | (10) |
|
8.2.1 Spice Level 1 Model |
|
|
313 | (3) |
|
8.2.2 Spice Level 2 Model |
|
|
316 | (2) |
|
8.2.3 Spice Level 3 Model: Principal Effects |
|
|
318 | (4) |
|
|
322 | (9) |
|
8.3.1 Mobility Reduction with Gate Voltage |
|
|
322 | (1) |
|
8.3.2 Velocity Saturation (Mobility Reduction with Drain Voltage) |
|
|
323 | (1) |
|
8.3.3 Finite Output Resistance |
|
|
324 | (2) |
|
8.3.4 Threshold-Voltage-Related Short-Channel Effects |
|
|
326 | (2) |
|
8.3.5 Threshold-Voltage-Related Narrow-Channel Effects |
|
|
328 | (1) |
|
8.3.6 Subthreshold Current |
|
|
328 | (3) |
|
|
331 | (8) |
|
8.4.1 Downscaling Benefits and Rules |
|
|
331 | (2) |
|
|
333 | (2) |
|
|
335 | (4) |
|
8.5 Mos-Based Memory Devices |
|
|
339 | (11) |
|
|
339 | (2) |
|
|
341 | (2) |
|
|
343 | (2) |
|
|
345 | (4) |
|
|
349 | (1) |
|
|
350 | (47) |
|
|
350 | (21) |
|
9.1.1 BJT as a Voltage-Controlled Current Source |
|
|
351 | (3) |
|
9.1.2 BJT Currents and Gain Definitions |
|
|
354 | (5) |
|
9.1.3 Dependence of α and β Current Gains on Technological Parameters |
|
|
359 | (5) |
|
9.1.4 The Four Modes of Operation: BJT as a Switch |
|
|
364 | (5) |
|
|
369 | (1) |
|
|
369 | (2) |
|
9.2 Principal Current-Voltage Characteristics: Ebers-Moll Model in Spice |
|
|
371 | (8) |
|
|
372 | (1) |
|
|
373 | (1) |
|
|
374 | (5) |
|
|
379 | (8) |
|
9.3.1 Early Effect: Finite Dynamic Output Resistance |
|
|
379 | (3) |
|
9.3.2 Parasitic Resistances |
|
|
382 | (1) |
|
9.3.3 Dependence of Common-Emitter Current Gain on Transistor Current: Low-Current Effects |
|
|
382 | (2) |
|
9.3.4 Dependence of Common-Emitter Current Gain on Transistor Current: Gummel-Poon Model for High-Current Effects |
|
|
384 | (3) |
|
9.4 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor |
|
|
387 | (10) |
|
|
389 | (3) |
|
|
392 | (4) |
|
|
396 | (1) |
|
PART III SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS |
|
|
|
10 Physics of Nanoscale Devices |
|
|
397 | (47) |
|
10.1 Single-Carrier Events |
|
|
398 | (19) |
|
10.1.1 Beyond the Classical Principle of Continuity |
|
|
398 | (4) |
|
10.1.2 Current-Time Form of the Uncertainty Principle |
|
|
402 | (3) |
|
10.1.3 Carrier-Supply Limit to Diffusion Current |
|
|
405 | (3) |
|
10.1.4 Spatial Uncertainty |
|
|
408 | (1) |
|
10.1.5 Direct Nonequilibrium Modeling of Single-Carrier Events |
|
|
409 | (8) |
|
10.2 Two-Dimensional Transport in Mosfets and Hemts |
|
|
417 | (12) |
|
10.2.1 Quantum Confinement |
|
|
418 | (5) |
|
10.2.2 Hemt Structure and Characteristics |
|
|
423 | (2) |
|
10.2.3 Application of Classical Mosfet Equations to Two-Dimensional Transport in Mosfets and Hemts |
|
|
425 | (4) |
|
10.3 One-Dimensional Transport in Nanowires and Carbon Nanotubes |
|
|
429 | (15) |
|
10.3.1 Ohmic Transport in Nanowire and Carbon-Nanotube Fets |
|
|
430 | (2) |
|
10.3.2 One-Dimensional Ballistic Transport and the Quantum Conductance Limit |
|
|
432 | (6) |
|
|
438 | (3) |
|
|
441 | (2) |
|
|
443 | (1) |
|
11 Device Electronics: Equivalent Circuits and Spice Parameters |
|
|
444 | (53) |
|
|
445 | (12) |
|
11.1.1 Static Model and Parameters in Spice |
|
|
445 | (1) |
|
11.1.2 Large-Signal Equivalent Circuit in Spice |
|
|
446 | (2) |
|
11.1.3 Parameter Measurement |
|
|
448 | (6) |
|
11.1.4 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit |
|
|
454 | (3) |
|
|
457 | (23) |
|
11.2.1 Static Model and Parameters: Level 3 in Spice |
|
|
457 | (6) |
|
11.2.2 Parameter Measurement |
|
|
463 | (7) |
|
11.2.3 Large-Signal Equivalent Circuit and Dynamic Parameters in Spice |
|
|
470 | (2) |
|
11.2.4 Simple Digital Model |
|
|
472 | (6) |
|
11.2.5 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit |
|
|
478 | (2) |
|
|
480 | (17) |
|
11.3.1 Static Model and Parameters: Ebers-Moll and Gummel-Poon Levels in Spice |
|
|
480 | (1) |
|
11.3.2 Parameter Measurement |
|
|
481 | (6) |
|
11.3.3 Large-Signal Equivalent Circuit and Dynamic Parameters in Spice |
|
|
487 | (1) |
|
11.3.4 Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit |
|
|
488 | (3) |
|
|
491 | (1) |
|
|
492 | (3) |
|
|
495 | (2) |
|
|
497 | (21) |
|
12.1 Light-Emitting Diodes (Led) |
|
|
497 | (3) |
|
12.2 Photodetectors and Solar Cells |
|
|
500 | (10) |
|
12.2.1 Biasing for Photodetector and Solar-Cell Applications |
|
|
500 | (2) |
|
12.2.2 Carrier Generation in Photodetectors and Solar Cells |
|
|
502 | (2) |
|
12.2.3 Photocurrent Equation |
|
|
504 | (6) |
|
|
510 | (8) |
|
12.3.1 Stimulated Emission, Inversion Population, and Other Fundamental Concepts |
|
|
510 | (2) |
|
12.3.2 A Typical Heterojunction Laser |
|
|
512 | (2) |
|
|
514 | (1) |
|
|
515 | (2) |
|
|
517 | (1) |
|
|
518 | (14) |
|
|
518 | (8) |
|
|
518 | (2) |
|
13.1.2 Jfet Characteristics |
|
|
520 | (2) |
|
13.1.3 Spice Model and Parameters |
|
|
522 | (4) |
|
|
526 | (6) |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
13.2.2 Mesfet Characteristics |
|
|
526 | (1) |
|
13.2.3 Spice Model and Parameters |
|
|
527 | (3) |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
|
532 | (17) |
|
|
533 | (5) |
|
14.1.1 Drift Region in Power Devices |
|
|
533 | (2) |
|
14.1.2 Switching Characteristics |
|
|
535 | (2) |
|
|
537 | (1) |
|
|
538 | (2) |
|
|
540 | (2) |
|
|
542 | (7) |
|
|
545 | (1) |
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
547 | (2) |
|
15 Negative-Resistance Diodes |
|
|
549 | (13) |
|
15.1 Amplification and Oscillation by Negative Dynamic Resistance |
|
|
549 | (5) |
|
|
554 | (3) |
|
|
557 | (2) |
|
|
559 | (3) |
|
|
559 | (2) |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
|
561 | (1) |
|
16 Integrated-Circuit Technologies |
|
|
562 | (47) |
|
16.1 A Diode in IC Technology |
|
|
562 | (10) |
|
|
562 | (1) |
|
|
563 | (2) |
|
|
565 | (2) |
|
16.1.4 Diffusion Profiles |
|
|
567 | (5) |
|
|
572 | (18) |
|
16.2.1 Local Oxidation of Silicon (Locos) |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
|
573 | (8) |
|
16.2.3 Basic Cmos Technology |
|
|
581 | (8) |
|
16.2.4 Silicon-on-Insulator (SOI) Technology |
|
|
589 | (1) |
|
16.3 Bipolar IC Technologies |
|
|
590 | (19) |
|
16.3.1 IC Structure of NPN BJT |
|
|
590 | (2) |
|
16.3.2 Standard Bipolar Technology Process |
|
|
592 | (3) |
|
16.3.3 Implementation of PNP BJTs, Resistors, Capacitors, and Diodes |
|
|
595 | (5) |
|
|
600 | (3) |
|
|
603 | (1) |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
|
605 | (3) |
|
|
608 | (1) |
Bibliography |
|
609 | (1) |
Answers to Selected Problems |
|
610 | (2) |
Index |
|
612 | |