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Quantum Physics of Atomic Frequency Standards: Recent Developments [Kõva köide]

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(Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada), (Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada)
  • Formaat: Hardback, 486 pages, kõrgus x laius: 234x156 mm, kaal: 884 g, 28 Tables, black and white; 183 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 05-Aug-2015
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-10: 1466576952
  • ISBN-13: 9781466576957
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Quantum Physics of Atomic Frequency Standards: Recent DevelopmentsSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: Hardback, 486 pages, kõrgus x laius: 234x156 mm, kaal: 884 g, 28 Tables, black and white; 183 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 05-Aug-2015
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press Inc
  • ISBN-10: 1466576952
  • ISBN-13: 9781466576957
Teised raamatud teemal:
Püsilink: https://www.kriso.ee/db/9781466576957.html
Märksõnad:

Up-to-Date Coverage of Stable and Accurate Frequency Standards

The Quantum Physics of Atomic Frequency Standards: Recent Developments covers advances in atomic frequency standards (atomic clocks) from the last several decades. It explains the use of various techniques, such as laser optical pumping, coherent population trapping, laser cooling, and electromagnetic and optical trapping, in the implementation of classical microwave and optical atomic frequency standards.

The book first discusses improvements to conventional atomic frequency standards, highlighting the main limitations of those frequency standards and the physical basis of the limitations. It then describes how advances in the theory and applications of atomic physics have opened new avenues in frequency standards. The authors go on to explore the research and development of new microwave and optical frequency standards before presenting the results in frequency stability and accuracy achieved with these new frequency standards. They also illustrate the application of atomic clocks in metrology, telecommunications, navigation, and other areas and give some insight into future work.

Building on the success of the previous two volumes, this up-to-date, in-depth book examines the vast improvements to atomic clocks that have occurred in the last 25 years. The improved stability and accuracy enable the verification of physical concepts used in fundamental theories, such as relativity, as well as the stability of fundamental constants intrinsic to those theories.

Arvustused

"The Quantum Physics of Atomic Frequency Standards: Recent Developments may be considered a basic textbook in the field of atomic clocks. It updates the previous two volumes with the new achievements in that field. This third volume describes, in fact, the results obtained in the past 25 years within the area of atom laser cooling and trapping techniques and with the full exploitation of laser coherently induced phenomena. The former refers in particular to atomic fountains, optical lattice clocks, and ion clocks, while the latter considers the optically pumped and coherent population-trappingbased clocks. The book is not a simple review of the applications of the above-mentioned new techniques but reports as well their basic operating principles in continuity with the first two volumes, making it suitable as a textbook at the PhD level and very useful for researchers in the atomic frequency standards field. I fully endorse this book, being sure of its future success in the time and frequency community." Aldo Godone, National Institute for Metrological Research of Italy

"Despite the fact that accurate and stable frequency references are critical for abundant commercial, scientific, and military applications, no comprehensive collection of the achievements over the last 25 years has been published. Therefore, Vanier and Tomescus book is really going to fill a gap and its acquisition is a must for technical libraries and research groups working in the field. The reader will learn the essentials on all kinds of atomic frequency standards, commercial and research-grade, in the microwave and the optical frequency domains. The application of laser technology in optical frequency standards and optical frequency measurements has been covered well by the authors. a book that is worth being read and that can help beginners become experts." Andreas Bauch, Physicist, Head of Time Dissemination Working Group, Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Braunschweig, Germany

Preface xiii
Introduction xvii
Authors xix
Chapter 1 Microwave Atomic Frequency Standards: Review and Recent Developments 1(100)
1.1 Classical Atomic Frequency Standards
2(80)
1.1.1 Cs Beam Frequency Standard
2(31)
1.1.1.1 Description of the Approach Using Magnetic State Selection
3(4)
1.1.1.2 Review of Frequency Shifts and Accuracy
7(8)
1.1.1.3 Frequency Stability of the Cs Beam Standard
15(1)
1.1.1.4 Recent Accomplishments
16(17)
1.1.2 Hydrogen Maser
33(36)
1.1.2.1 Active Hydrogen Maser
33(15)
1.1.2.2 Passive Hydrogen Maser
48(5)
1.1.2.3 Frequency Stability of the Hydrogen Maser
53(4)
1.1.2.4 State of the Art of Recent Developments and Realizations
57(12)
1.1.3 Optically Pumped Rb Frequency Standards
69(13)
1.1.3.1 General Description
69(2)
1.1.3.2 State-of-the-Art Development
71(11)
1.2 Other Atomic Microwave Frequency Standards
82(11)
1.2.1 199Hg+ Ion Frequency Standard
83(7)
1.2.1.1 General Description
83(2)
1.2.1.2 Frequency Shifts
85(3)
1.2.1.3 Linear Trap
88(2)
1.2.2 Other Ions in a Paul Trap
90(12)
1.2.2.1 171yb+ and 173Yb+ Ion Microwave Frequency Standards
91(1)
1.2.2.2 201Hg+ Ion Microwave Frequency Standard
92(1)
1.3 On the Limits of Classical Microwave Atomic Frequency Standards
93(1)
Appendix 1.A: Formula for Second-Order Doppler Shift
94(1)
Appendix 1.B: Phase Shift between the Arms of Ramsey Cavity
95(1)
Appendix 1.C: Square Wave Frequency Modulation and Frequency Shifts
95(2)
Appendix 1.D: Ring Cavity Phase Shift
97(1)
Appendix 1.E: Magnetron Cavity
98(3)
Chapter 2 Recent Advances in Atomic Physics That Have Impact on Atomic Frequency Standards Development 101(90)
2.1 Solid-State Diode Laser
102(7)
2.1.1 Basic Principle of Operation of a Laser Diode
102(3)
2.1.2 Basic Characteristics of the Semiconductor Laser Diode
105(1)
2.1.3 Types of Laser Diodes
106(2)
2.1.4 Other Types of Lasers Used in Special Situations
108(1)
2.2 Control of Wavelength and Spectral Width of Laser Diodes
109(10)
2.2.1 Line Width Reduction
109(7)
2.2.1.1 Simple Optical Feedback
109(1)
2.2.1.2 Extended Cavity Approach
109(3)
2.2.1.3 Feedback from High-Q Optical Cavities
112(1)
2.2.1.4 Electrical Feedback
112(1)
2.2.1.5 Other Approaches
112(1)
2.2.1.6 Locking the Laser to an Ultra-Stable Cavity
113(3)
2.2.2 Laser Frequency Stabilization Using an Atomic Resonance Line
116(3)
2.2.2.1 Locking the Laser Frequency to Linear Optical Absorption
116(1)
2.2.2.2 Locking the Laser Frequency to Saturated Absorption
117(2)
2.3 Laser Optical Pumping
119(8)
2.3.1 Rate Equations
120(2)
2.3.2 Field Equation and Coherence
122(5)
2.4 Coherent Population Trapping
127(9)
2.4.1 Physics of the CPT Phenomenon
129(2)
2.4.2 Basic Equations
131(5)
2.5 Laser Cooling of Atoms
136(53)
2.5.1 Atom—Radiation Interaction
138(20)
2.5.1.1 Effect of a Photon on Atom External Properties: Semi-Classical Approach
138(5)
2.5.1.2 Quantum Mechanical Approach
143(15)
2.5.2 Effect of Fluctuations in Laser Cooling and Its Limit
158(2)
2.5.3 Cooling below Doppler Limit: Sisyphus Cooling
160(7)
2.5.3.1 Physics of Sisyphus Cooling
160(4)
2.5.3.2 Capture Velocity
164(1)
2.5.3.3 Friction Coefficient
165(1)
2.5.3.4 Cooling Limit Temperature
166(1)
2.5.3.5 Recoil Limit
166(1)
2.5.3.6 Sub-Recoil Cooling
167(1)
2.5.4 Magneto-Optical Trap
167(3)
2.5.5 Other Experimental Techniques in Laser Cooling and Trapping
170(22)
2.5.5.1 Laser Atom-Slowing Using a Frequency Swept Laser System: Chirp Laser Slowing
171(2)
2.5.5.2 Laser Atom-Slowing Using Zeeman Effect: Zeeman Slower
173(4)
2.5.5.3 2D Magneto-Optical Trap
177(3)
2.5.5.4 Isotropic Cooling
180(3)
2.5.5.5 Optical Lattice Approach
183(6)
Appendix 2.A: Laser Cooling—Energy Considerations
189(2)
Chapter 3 Microwave Frequency Standards Using New Physics 191(154)
3.1 Cs Beam Frequency Standard
192(18)
3.1.1 Optically Pumped Cs Beam Frequency Standard
192(8)
3.1.1.1 General Description
192(2)
3.1.1.2 Frequency Shifts and Accuracy
194(3)
3.1.1.3 Experimental Determination of Those Shifts
197(1)
3.1.1.4 Frequency Stability
198(2)
3.1.1.5 Field Application
200(1)
3.1.2 CPT Approach in a Beam
200(8)
3.1.2.1 General Description
200(1)
3.1.2.2 Analysis
201(5)
3.1.2.3 Experimental Results
206(2)
3.1.3 Classical Cs Beam Standard Using Beam Cooling
208(2)
3.2 Atomic Fountain Approach
210(48)
3.2.1 In Search of a Solution
210(1)
3.2.2 General Description of the Cs Fountain
211(2)
3.2.3 Functioning of the Cs Fountain
213(6)
3.2.3.1 Formation of the Cooled Atomic Cloud: Zone A
213(4)
3.2.3.2 Preparation of the Atoms: Zone B
217(1)
3.2.3.3 Interrogation Region: Zone C
218(1)
3.2.3.4 Free Motion: Zone D
218(1)
3.2.3.5 Detection Region: Zone E
218(1)
3.2.4 Physical Construction of the Cs Fountain
219(4)
3.2.4.1 Vacuum Chamber
219(1)
3.2.4.2 Microwave Cavity
220(1)
3.2.4.3 Magnetic Field
221(1)
3.2.4.4 Temperature Control
221(1)
3.2.4.5 Capture and Selection Zone
221(1)
3.2.4.6 Detection Zone
221(1)
3.2.4.7 Supporting Systems
221(1)
3.2.4.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Pulsed Fountain
222(1)
3.2.5 Frequency Stability of the Cs Fountain
223(3)
3.2.5.1 Photon Shot Noise
224(1)
3.2.5.2 Quantum Projection Noise
225(1)
3.2.5.3 Electronic Noise
225(1)
3.2.5.4 Reference Oscillator Noise: Dicke Effect
225(1)
3.2.6 Rubidium and Dual Species Fountain Clock
226(3)
3.2.7 Frequency Shifts and Biases Present in the Fountain
229(22)
3.2.7.1 Second-Order Zeeman Shift
230(2)
3.2.7.2 Black Body Radiation Shift
232(5)
3.2.7.3 Collision Shift
237(3)
3.2.7.4 Cavity Phase Shift
240(2)
3.2.7.5 Cavity Pulling
242(5)
3.2.7.6 Microwave Spectral Purity
247(1)
3.2.7.7 Microwave Leakage
247(1)
3.2.7.8 Relativistic Effects
248(1)
3.2.7.9 Other Shifts
249(1)
3.2.7.10 Conclusion on Frequency Shifts and Accuracy
250(1)
3.2.8 An Alternative Cold Caesium Frequency Standard: The Continuous Fountain
251(6)
3.2.8.1 Light Trap
252(1)
3.2.8.2 Interrogation Zone, Microwave Cavity
253(2)
3.2.8.3 Preliminary Results
255(2)
3.2.9 Cold Atom PHARAO Cs Space Clock
257(1)
3.3 Isotropic Cooling Approach
258(4)
3.3.1 External Cavity Approach: CHARLI
258(2)
3.3.2 Approach Integrating Reflecting Sphere and Microwave Cavity: HORACE
260(1)
3.3.3 Different HORACE Approach
261(1)
3.4 Room Temperature Rb Standard Approach Using Laser Optical Pumping
262(38)
3.4.1 Contrast, Line Width, and Light Shift
263(9)
3.4.2 Effect of Laser Radiation Beam Shape
272(1)
3.4.3 Expectations Relative to Short-Term Frequency Stability
273(1)
3.4.4 Review of Experimental Results on Signal Size, Line Width, and Frequency Stability
273(5)
3.4.5 Frequency Shifts
278(9)
3.4.5.1 Buffer Gas Shift
278(1)
3.4.5.2 Magnetic Field Shift
279(1)
3.4.5.3 Light Shift
279(5)
3.4.5.4 Spin-Exchange Frequency Shift
284(1)
3.4.5.5 Microwave Power Shift
285(1)
3.4.5.6 Cavity Pulling
286(1)
3.4.6 Impact of Laser Noise and Instability on Clock Frequency Stability
287(10)
3.4.6.1 Spectral Width, Phase Noise, and Intensity Noise of Laser Diodes
288(2)
3.4.6.2 Impact of Laser Noise on Clock Short-Term Frequency Stability
290(5)
3.4.6.3 Medium- and Long-Term Frequency Stability
295(2)
3.4.7 Other Approaches Using Laser Optical Pumping with a Sealed Cell
297(3)
3.4.7.1 Maser Approach
297(1)
3.4.7.2 Laser Pulsing Approach
297(2)
3.4.7.3 Wall-Coated Cell Approach
299(1)
3.5 CPT Approach
300(24)
3.5.1 Sealed Cell with a Buffer Gas in Continuous Mode: Passive Frequency Standard
300(15)
3.5.1.1 Signal Amplitude and Line Width
302(5)
3.5.1.2 Practical Implementation and Its Characteristics
307(8)
3.5.2 Active Approach in a Cell: The CPT Maser
315(7)
3.5.2.1 Basic CPT Maser Theory
315(3)
3.5.2.2 Frequency Stability
318(2)
3.5.2.3 Frequency Shifts
320(2)
3.5.3 Techniques for Improving S/N Ratio in the Passive IOP and CPT Clock Approach
322(1)
3.5.4 CPT in Laser-Cooled Ensemble for Realizing a Frequency Standard
323(1)
3.6 Laser-Cooled Microwave Ion Clocks
324(5)
3.6.1 9Be+ 303 MHz Radio-Frequency Standard
325(2)
3.6.2 113Cd+ and 111Cd+ Ion Trap
327(1)
3.6.3 171Yb+ Laser-Cooled Microwave Frequency Standard
328(1)
Appendix 3.A: Frequency Stability of an Atomic Fountain
329(8)
3.A.1 Shot Noise
333(1)
3.A.2 Quantum Projection Noise
334(3)
Appendix 3.B: Cold Collisions and Scattering Length
337(1)
Appendix 3.C: Optical Absorption of Polarized Laser Radiation Including Optical Pumping
338(3)
Appendix 3.D: Basic CPT Maser Theory
341(4)
Chapter 4 Optical Frequency Standards 345(56)
4.1 Early Approach Using Absorption Cells
347(2)
4.2 Some Basic Ideas
349(2)
4.3 MOT Approach
351(1)
4.4 Single Ion Optical Clocks
352(25)
4.4.1 The Concept
352(5)
4.4.2 Outline of Particular Implementations with Individual Ions
357(9)
4.4.2.1 27A1+ (I = 5/2)
357(2)
4.4.2.2 40Ca+ (I = 0) and 43Ca+ (1 = 7/2)
359(2)
4.4.2.3 87Sr+ (I = 9/2) and 88Sr+ (1 = 0)
361(1)
4.4.2.4 15In+ (I = 9/2)
362(1)
4.4.2.5 137Ba+ (I = 3/2) and 1"Ba+ (1 = 0)
363(1)
4.4.2.6 171Yb+ (I = 1/2), 172Yb+ (I = 0), and 13Yb+ (I = 5/2)
364(2)
4.4.2.7 198Hg+ (I = 0) and 199Hg+ (1 = 1/2)
366(1)
4.4.3 Systematic Frequency Shifts in Single Ion Clocks
366(11)
4.4.3.1 Doppler Effect
366(2)
4.4.3.2 Zeeman Effect
368(3)
4.4.3.3 Biases due to the Presence of Electric Fields
371(6)
4.5 Optical Lattice Neutral Atoms Clock
377(20)
4.5.1 The Concept
377(9)
4.5.1.1 Trapping Characteristics
382(1)
4.5.1.2 Atom Recoil
383(1)
4.5.1.3 Atom Localization
383(1)
4.5.1.4 Magic Wavelength
384(1)
4.5.1.5 Clock Transition
385(1)
4.5.2 Type of Atoms Used in Optical Lattice Clocks
386(5)
4.5.2.1 Strontium Atom
386(1)
4.5.2.2 Mercury Atom
387(2)
4.5.2.3 Ytterbium Atom
389(1)
4.5.2.4 Magnesium Atom
390(1)
4.5.2.5 Calcium Atom
391(1)
4.5.3 Important Frequency Biases
391(4)
4.5.3.1 Zeeman Effect
391(1)
4.5.3.2 BBR Shift
392(1)
4.5.3.3 Lattice Light Shift
393(1)
4.5.3.4 Other Shifts
394(1)
4.5.4 Frequency Stability of an Optical Lattice Clock
395(1)
4.5.5 Practical Realizations
395(2)
4.6 Frequency Measurement of Optical Clocks
397(4)
4.6.1 Optical Comb
398(1)
4.6.2 Clock Frequencies and Frequency Stabilities Realized
399(2)
Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusion, and Reflections 401(14)
5.1 Accuracy and Frequency Stability
402(2)
5.2 Selected Applications of Atomic Frequency Standards
404(8)
5.2.1 The SI: Towards a Redefinition of the Second
405(2)
5.2.2 Tests of Fundamental Physical Laws
407(3)
5.2.2.1 Fundamental Constants
407(1)
5.2.2.2 Time Dilation and Gravitational Red Shift
408(1)
5.2.2.3 Fundamental Physics in Space
409(1)
5.2.3 Clocks for Astronomy and Earth Science
410(2)
5.2.3.1 VLBI and Geodesy
410(1)
5.2.3.2 Deep Space Network
410(1)
5.2.3.3 Earth Clocks Network
410(1)
5.2.3.4 Navigation Systems
411(1)
5.3 Last Reflections
412(3)
References 415(42)
Index 457
Jacques Vanier is an adjunct professor in the Physics Department at the University of Montreal. He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, the American Physical Society, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. He has written more than 120 journal articles and proceedings papers and is the author of several books on masers, lasers, and atomic clocks. His research work is oriented toward the understanding and application of the quantum electronics phenomena.

Cipriana Tomescu is an invited researcher in the Physics Department at the University of Montreal. She is the author of numerous articles in scientific journals and conference proceedings. Her research involves state-of-the-art atomic frequency standards and H masers.