Foreword |
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xiii | |
Acknowledgments |
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xv | |
Introduction |
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xvii | |
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PART 1 Radar Technologies for Autonomous Vehicles |
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1 | (140) |
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Chapter 1 Modern Radar Sensors in Advanced Automotive Architectures |
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3 | (22) |
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1.1 Inspiration for More Advanced Systems |
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4 | (2) |
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1.1.1 Traffic Density and Fatal Accident Rate |
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4 | (1) |
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4 | (1) |
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1.1.3 Autonomous Driving Levels |
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4 | (2) |
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1.2 The Evolving Automotive Radar Landscape |
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6 | (1) |
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1.3 Fast Chirp Sequence Radar Sensing |
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7 | (2) |
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1.4 RFCMOS Car Radar Transceiver |
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9 | (1) |
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1.5 Elements of a Radar Module |
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10 | (3) |
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1.6 Angular Resolution Increase: MIMO Example and Cascaded Application |
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13 | (1) |
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1.7 Vehicle Network and Compute Considerations |
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14 | (9) |
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1.7.1 Vehicle Network Architecture Evolution |
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14 | (2) |
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1.7.2 Distributed Versus Centralized Processing |
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16 | (6) |
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22 | (1) |
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23 | (1) |
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23 | (2) |
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23 | (2) |
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Chapter 2 Design Considerations for Automotive Radar |
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25 | (18) |
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25 | (3) |
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2.2 The Spectrum for Automotive Radar |
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28 | (1) |
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2.3 Range (Distance) Required for Automotive Radar |
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29 | (2) |
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2.4 Automotive Radar Installation |
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31 | (1) |
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2.5 Automotive Radar Considerations for Scanning the FOV |
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32 | (2) |
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2.6 Frequency Modulation Waveforms and the Radar Data Cube |
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34 | (3) |
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2.7 Outputs from Automotive Radar |
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37 | (6) |
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41 | (2) |
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Chapter 3 Digital Code Modulation |
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43 | (24) |
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43 | (2) |
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3.2 FCM Versus DCM Architecture |
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45 | (2) |
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47 | (9) |
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48 | (3) |
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3.3.2 Velocity Processing |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (4) |
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56 | (6) |
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3.4.1 High Contrast Distance: Matched Filter |
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56 | (1) |
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3.4.2 High Contrast Resolution |
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57 | (1) |
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3.4.3 CDM MIMO (Higher Power on Target) |
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57 | (1) |
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3.4.4 Interference Robustness and Interference Mitigation |
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58 | (1) |
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3.4.5 Cascading: Coherent and Quasi-coherent Sensors and Networks |
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59 | (1) |
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59 | (3) |
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3.5 DCM Radar Implementation |
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62 | (5) |
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64 | (3) |
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Chapter 4 Automotive MIMO Radar |
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67 | (28) |
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4.1 Virtual Array Synthesis via MIMO Radar |
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68 | (2) |
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4.2 Waveform Orthogonality Strategies in Automotive MIMO Radar |
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70 | (5) |
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4.2.1 Waveform Orthogonality via TDM |
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70 | (1) |
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4.2.2 Waveform Orthogonality via DDM |
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71 | (3) |
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4.2.3 Waveform Orthogonality via FDM |
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74 | (1) |
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4.3 Angle Finding in Automotive MIMO Radar |
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75 | (5) |
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4.3.1 High Resolution Angle Finding with ULA |
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76 | (2) |
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4.3.2 High Resolution Angle Finding with SLA |
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78 | (2) |
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4.4 High Resolution Imaging Radar for Autonomous Driving |
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80 | (3) |
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4.4.1 Cascade of Multiple Radar Transceivers |
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80 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Examples of Cascaded Imaging Radars |
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81 | (2) |
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4.4.3 Design Challenges of Imaging Radar |
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83 | (1) |
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4.5 Challenges in Automotive MIMO Radar |
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83 | (12) |
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4.5.1 Angle Finding in the Presence of Multipath Reflections |
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83 | (2) |
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4.5.2 Waveform Orthogonality in Automotive MIMO Radar |
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85 | (2) |
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4.5.3 Efficient, High Resolution Angle Finding Algorithms Are Needed |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (7) |
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Chapter 5 Synthetic Aperture Radar for Automotive Applications |
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95 | (24) |
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95 | (9) |
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5.1.1 Historical Background |
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95 | (1) |
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5.1.2 Comparison to Traditional Radar Systems |
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96 | (3) |
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5.1.3 SAR and Point Cloud Imaging Performance |
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99 | (1) |
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5.1.4 Applications for Automotive Use |
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99 | (5) |
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5.2 Mathematical Foundation |
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104 | (3) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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5.3 Building an Automotive SAR |
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107 | (8) |
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5.3.1 Measuring Ego-Motion |
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107 | (4) |
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5.3.2 SAR Image Formation |
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111 | (3) |
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5.3.3 Coexistence with Point Cloud Pipeline |
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114 | (1) |
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5.3.4 Elevation Information |
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115 | (1) |
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115 | (1) |
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115 | (1) |
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5.4.2 SAR for Moving Objects |
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116 | (1) |
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116 | (1) |
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116 | (3) |
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117 | (2) |
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Chapter 6 Radar Transceiver Technologies |
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119 | (22) |
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6.1 Background and Introduction to Automotive Radar |
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119 | (3) |
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6.2 Block Diagram Overview of an FMCW Radar Transceiver |
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122 | (1) |
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6.3 Challenges with Deeply Scaled CMOS |
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123 | (1) |
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6.4 Active Devices in CMOS |
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124 | (3) |
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127 | (1) |
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6.6 Circuit Architectures Suitable for Advanced CMOS |
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128 | (3) |
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6.6.1 The Transmit Power Amplifier |
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128 | (2) |
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6.6.2 The TX Phase Shifter |
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130 | (1) |
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6.7 The LO/FMCW Chirp Generator |
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131 | (3) |
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6.8 The Receiver Signal Chain |
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134 | (3) |
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135 | (1) |
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135 | (2) |
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137 | (4) |
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138 | (3) |
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PART 2 Challenges and Solutions for the Automotive Environment |
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141 | (68) |
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Chapter 7 Radar Challenges from the Automotive Scene |
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143 | (18) |
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143 | (4) |
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144 | (1) |
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7.1.2 Imaging Dense Clutter |
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144 | (1) |
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7.1.3 Simultaneous Transmit and Receive |
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144 | (3) |
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147 | (3) |
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7.3 Ground Bounce (Unresolved Reflections) |
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150 | (5) |
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7.4 Multipath (Resolved Reflections) |
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155 | (6) |
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160 | (1) |
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Chapter 8 Radar Interference |
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161 | (28) |
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161 | (1) |
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8.2 Motivation and Definitions |
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161 | (2) |
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8.3 Impacts and Manifestation |
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163 | (14) |
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163 | (12) |
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8.3.2 PMCW Radar and Mixed Waveforms |
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175 | (2) |
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177 | (7) |
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8.4.1 Mitigations Local to the Radar |
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177 | (3) |
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8.4.2 Global Mitigations: Noncooperative Countermeasures |
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180 | (2) |
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8.4.3 Global Mitigations: Cooperative Countermeasures |
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182 | (1) |
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8.4.4 Global Mitigations: Regulations |
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183 | (1) |
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8.5 Recommendations for the Future |
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184 | (5) |
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8.5.1 Use Less Energy and Power |
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185 | (1) |
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186 | (1) |
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8.5.3 Create a Useful Taxonomy for RFI Mitigation |
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187 | (1) |
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188 | (1) |
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Chapter 9 The Impacts of Water (Weather) on Automotive Radar |
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189 | (20) |
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189 | (1) |
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189 | (10) |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (5) |
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195 | (4) |
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199 | (2) |
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9.4 Backscattering Phenomenology |
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201 | (6) |
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9.4.1 Rainfall Backscatter |
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201 | (4) |
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205 | (2) |
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9.5 Potential Mitigations |
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207 | (2) |
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208 | (1) |
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PART 3 Integration and System Considerations |
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209 | (84) |
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Chapter 10 Safety Considerations for Radar in Fully Autonomous Vehicles |
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211 | (24) |
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211 | (1) |
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211 | (1) |
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212 | (4) |
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10.3.1 ISO 26262 and ISO 21448 |
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213 | (2) |
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10.3.2 Relationship to Existing Standards and Processes |
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215 | (1) |
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10.4 Lessons from Industry |
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216 | (5) |
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10.4.1 Emphasize Understanding over Following Checklists |
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217 | (1) |
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10.4.2 Embrace Systems Engineering |
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217 | (1) |
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10.4.3 Address Safety in the Most Appropriate Place |
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217 | (1) |
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10.4.4 Improve Supplier/Customer Engagement |
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218 | (1) |
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10.4.5 Recognize the Criticality of a High Quality Safety Manual |
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218 | (1) |
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10.4.6 Beware the Many Pitfalls of Safety Analysis |
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219 | (1) |
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10.4.7 Applying Safety to Emerging or Complex Technologies |
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220 | (1) |
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10.5 Safety Concepts for Level 4 ADS and Implications for Radar |
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221 | (9) |
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10.5.1 Safety Considerations on Multiple Sensor Modalities |
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223 | (2) |
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10.5.2 Safety Considerations on Radar Data |
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225 | (1) |
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10.5.3 Radar FuSa and SOTIF Roots Causes and Mitigations |
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225 | (4) |
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10.5.4 Safety Considerations Due to Available Radar Technology |
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229 | (1) |
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10.6 Safety Considerations for Verification and Validation |
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230 | (1) |
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231 | (4) |
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232 | (3) |
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Chapter 11 Testing Automotive Radars |
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235 | (58) |
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11.1 Introduction: Why Is Testing Necessary? |
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235 | (2) |
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11.1.1 Verification and Validation of System Performance |
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235 | (1) |
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11.1.2 Conformance to Legal Regulations and Industrial Standards |
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236 | (1) |
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11.1.3 Safety Performance Assessment |
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236 | (1) |
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11.2 Measurable Parameters: From Sensor Level to Vehicle Integration |
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237 | (30) |
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237 | (15) |
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252 | (3) |
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11.2.3 Antenna and Radome Test |
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255 | (3) |
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11.2.4 Performance and Functional Tests |
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258 | (4) |
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11.2.5 Integration Testing |
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262 | (5) |
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267 | (14) |
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11.3.1 General Test Equipment |
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268 | (4) |
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11.3.2 Radar Echo Generators |
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272 | (2) |
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11.3.3 Measurement Antennas |
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274 | (2) |
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276 | (4) |
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280 | (1) |
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281 | (12) |
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11.4.1 Transmitter Test Setup |
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282 | (1) |
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11.4.2 Setup for Sensor Calibration and Performance Tests |
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283 | (1) |
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11.4.3 Setups for EMC and OOB Testing |
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284 | (2) |
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11.4.4 Simulating Interference from Other Automotive Radar Transmitters |
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286 | (1) |
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11.4.5 Exemplary Test Scenario |
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286 | (2) |
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11.4.6 ADAS Integration Test Bed |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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290 | (3) |
List of Acronyms |
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293 | (4) |
About the Editor |
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297 | (2) |
About the Contributors |
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299 | (4) |
Index |
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303 | |