| Preface |
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vii | |
| Acknowledgments |
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ix | |
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PART I THE PHYSICS OF RADIOGRAPHY |
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1 An Introduction to Radiographic Science |
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3 | (14) |
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3 | (1) |
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A Brief History of X-Rays |
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4 | (3) |
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The Development of Modern Imaging Technology |
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7 | (3) |
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The Development of Digital Imaging |
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10 | (1) |
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11 | (3) |
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14 | (1) |
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15 | (2) |
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2 Basic Physics for Radiography |
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17 | (16) |
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The Base Quantities and Forces |
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17 | (2) |
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19 | (2) |
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21 | (4) |
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Heat and States of Matter |
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25 | (5) |
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30 | (1) |
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31 | (2) |
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3 Unit Conversions and Help with Math |
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33 | (24) |
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33 | (1) |
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34 | (3) |
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Converting Fractions to Decimals |
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34 | (1) |
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Converting Decimals and Percentages |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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35 | (1) |
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36 | (1) |
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36 | (1) |
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Converting to Scientific Notation |
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37 | (1) |
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Calculating with Scientific Notation |
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38 | (1) |
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Converting Units with Dimensional Analysis |
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39 | (2) |
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41 | (1) |
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41 | (3) |
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44 | (2) |
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46 | (6) |
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Understanding the X-Ray Beam Spectrum Curve |
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50 | (2) |
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52 | (1) |
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Review Questions: Practice Exercise 3-1 |
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53 | (4) |
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57 | (22) |
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57 | (2) |
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Physical Structure of Atoms |
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59 | (6) |
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63 | (2) |
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65 | (3) |
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65 | (1) |
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66 | (2) |
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68 | (1) |
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69 | (2) |
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71 | (4) |
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75 | (1) |
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76 | (3) |
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79 | (30) |
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79 | (6) |
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The Electromagnetic Wave Formula |
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85 | (2) |
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87 | (2) |
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The Nature of Electromagnetic Waves |
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89 | (2) |
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum |
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91 | (3) |
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Medical Applications of Electromagnetic Waves |
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94 | (4) |
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
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94 | (2) |
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96 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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Characteristics of Visible Light vs. X-Rays |
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98 | (2) |
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Dual Nature of All Matter and Radiation |
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100 | (5) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (3) |
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6 Magnetism and Electrostatics |
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109 | (16) |
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111 | (2) |
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113 | (2) |
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115 | (2) |
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The Five Laws of Electrostatics |
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116 | (1) |
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117 | (4) |
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Using an Electroscope to Detect Radiation |
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119 | (2) |
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121 | (1) |
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122 | (3) |
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125 | (22) |
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125 | (2) |
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127 | (1) |
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Characteristics of Electricity |
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128 | (2) |
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130 | (2) |
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Wave Forms of Electrical Current |
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132 | (5) |
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Electromagnetic Induction |
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137 | (6) |
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143 | (1) |
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144 | (3) |
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8 X-Ray Machine Circuits and Generators |
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147 | (16) |
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A Basic X-Ray Machine Circuit |
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147 | (5) |
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148 | (1) |
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149 | (2) |
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151 | (1) |
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152 | (4) |
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156 | (3) |
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Automatic Exposure Controls (AEC) |
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156 | (3) |
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159 | (1) |
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160 | (3) |
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163 | (16) |
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163 | (1) |
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Components of the X-Ray Tube |
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164 | (8) |
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164 | (3) |
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167 | (4) |
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171 | (1) |
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172 | (3) |
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172 | (2) |
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Extending X-Ray Tube Life |
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174 | (1) |
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175 | (1) |
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176 | (3) |
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179 | (18) |
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Interactions in the Anode |
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180 | (6) |
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180 | (3) |
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183 | (3) |
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186 | (1) |
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Factors Affecting the X-Ray Beam Spectrum |
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186 | (6) |
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186 | (2) |
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Milliampere-Seconds (mAs) |
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188 | (1) |
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188 | (1) |
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189 | (2) |
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191 | (1) |
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192 | (1) |
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193 | (4) |
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PART II PRODUCTION OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE |
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11 Creation of the Radiographic Image |
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197 | (18) |
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197 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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198 | (1) |
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199 | (1) |
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199 | (1) |
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199 | (1) |
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X-Ray Interactions Within the Patient |
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199 | (8) |
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200 | (2) |
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202 | (3) |
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205 | (1) |
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206 | (1) |
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Attenuation and Subject Contrast |
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207 | (2) |
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209 | (1) |
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210 | (2) |
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212 | (3) |
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12 Production of Subject Contrast |
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215 | (14) |
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General Attenuation and Subject Contrast |
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215 | (5) |
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217 | (1) |
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218 | (1) |
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219 | (1) |
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Scattered X-Rays and Subject Contrast |
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220 | (1) |
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Predominance of Interactions and Subject Contrast |
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221 | (5) |
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221 | (2) |
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Types of Tissue and Contrast Agents |
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223 | (2) |
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Relative Importance of kVp in Controlling Subject Contrast |
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225 | (1) |
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226 | (1) |
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227 | (2) |
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13 Qualities of the Radiographic Image |
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229 | (32) |
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The Components of Every Image |
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229 | (1) |
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229 | (2) |
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Recognizability (Geometrical Integrity) |
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231 | (3) |
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Sharpness of Recorded Detail |
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231 | (2) |
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233 | (1) |
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233 | (1) |
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Qualities of the Radiographic Image |
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234 | (20) |
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234 | (2) |
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236 | (6) |
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242 | (1) |
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242 | (2) |
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244 | (1) |
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244 | (4) |
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Sharpness of Recorded Detail |
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248 | (2) |
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250 | (1) |
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251 | (2) |
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253 | (1) |
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254 | (1) |
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Hierarchy of Image Qualities |
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255 | (1) |
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256 | (2) |
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258 | (3) |
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14 Milliampere-Seconds (mAs) |
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261 | (10) |
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Control of X-Ray Exposure |
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262 | (3) |
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263 | (2) |
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Underexposure and Quantum Mottle |
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265 | (2) |
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Subject Contrast and Other Image Qualities |
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267 | (1) |
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267 | (1) |
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268 | (1) |
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269 | (2) |
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15 Kilovoltage-Peak (kVp) |
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271 | (14) |
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Sufficient Penetration and Subject Contrast |
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271 | (3) |
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274 | (4) |
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276 | (2) |
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278 | (3) |
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Patient Exposure and the 15 Percent Rule |
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279 | (1) |
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Impact of Scatter Radiation on the Image |
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279 | (1) |
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280 | (1) |
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281 | (1) |
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281 | (2) |
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283 | (2) |
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16 Generators and Filtration |
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285 | (10) |
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285 | (3) |
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Effect of Rectification and Generators on Exposure |
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285 | (1) |
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286 | (1) |
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Battery-Operated Mobile Units |
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287 | (1) |
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288 | (4) |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (1) |
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Effects on Exposure and Beam Spectrum |
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290 | (1) |
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291 | (1) |
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292 | (1) |
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293 | (2) |
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295 | (12) |
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295 | (2) |
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296 | (1) |
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297 | (1) |
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Scatter Radiation and Subject Contrast |
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297 | (2) |
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299 | (1) |
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300 | (1) |
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Calculating Field Size Coverage |
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300 | (3) |
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303 | (1) |
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304 | (3) |
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18 Patient Condition, Pathology, and Contrast Agents |
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307 | (20) |
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General Patient Condition |
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307 | (4) |
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307 | (1) |
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308 | (1) |
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308 | (2) |
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310 | (1) |
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311 | (4) |
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312 | (1) |
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312 | (1) |
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312 | (1) |
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313 | (1) |
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313 | (1) |
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314 | (1) |
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314 | (1) |
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Molecular Composition of Tissues |
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315 | (1) |
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315 | (2) |
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Stage of Respiration and Patient Cooperation |
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317 | (2) |
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319 | (2) |
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319 | (1) |
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320 | (1) |
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321 | (3) |
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321 | (1) |
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322 | (1) |
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323 | (1) |
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324 | (1) |
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325 | (2) |
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19 Scattered Radiation and Grids |
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327 | (22) |
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327 | (2) |
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327 | (2) |
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329 | (1) |
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Large Soft-Tissue Part Thicknesses |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (1) |
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329 | (2) |
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Reducing Scatter with Grids |
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331 | (1) |
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Grid Ratio and Effectiveness |
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332 | (1) |
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Grid Frequency and Lead Content |
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333 | (1) |
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Effect on Subject Contrast |
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334 | (1) |
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335 | (2) |
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335 | (1) |
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336 | (1) |
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336 | (1) |
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Measuring Grid Effectiveness |
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337 | (1) |
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338 | (1) |
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338 | (1) |
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Technique Compensation for Grids |
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338 | (1) |
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339 | (1) |
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340 | (4) |
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340 | (2) |
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Alignment of the Beam and Grid |
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342 | (2) |
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344 | (2) |
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346 | (3) |
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20 The Anode Bevel and Focal Spot |
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349 | (14) |
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349 | (2) |
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351 | (4) |
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355 | (5) |
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Effect Upon Sharpness of Recorded Detail |
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355 | (1) |
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356 | (2) |
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358 | (1) |
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359 | (1) |
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360 | (1) |
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360 | (1) |
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361 | (2) |
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21 Source-to-Image Receptor Distance (SID) |
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363 | (16) |
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Effect on Sharpness of Recorded Detail |
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364 | (1) |
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364 | (3) |
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Intentional Use of Short SID |
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365 | (2) |
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367 | (1) |
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367 | (3) |
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Radiographic Formula for the Inverse Square Law |
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368 | (2) |
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Compensating Technique: The Square Law |
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370 | (4) |
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Rules of Thumb for SID Changes |
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374 | (2) |
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376 | (1) |
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376 | (1) |
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377 | (2) |
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22 OID and Distance Ratios |
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379 | (14) |
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Object-Image Receptor Distance |
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379 | (6) |
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Effect on Subject Contrast |
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379 | (2) |
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381 | (1) |
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Effect on Sharpness of Recorded Detail |
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382 | (1) |
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382 | (2) |
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Intentional Use of Long OID |
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384 | (1) |
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384 | (1) |
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Distance Ratios for Magnification and Sharpness |
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385 | (4) |
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Magnification: The SID/SOD Ratio |
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385 | (2) |
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Sharpness: The SOD/OID Ratio |
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387 | (2) |
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Visibility Functions and Distance Ratios |
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389 | (1) |
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389 | (1) |
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390 | (3) |
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393 | (18) |
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Alignment and Shape Distortion |
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393 | (9) |
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Off-Centering Versus Angling |
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393 | (1) |
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Position, Shape and Size of the Anatomical Part |
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393 | (1) |
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Objects With a Distinct Long Axis |
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394 | (1) |
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Ceiszynski's Law of Isometry |
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395 | (2) |
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Objects Without a Distinct Long Axis |
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397 | (1) |
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Off-Centering and Beam Divergence |
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397 | (1) |
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398 | (2) |
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SID as a Contributing Factor |
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400 | (1) |
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Maintaining Exposure: Compensating Tube-to-Tabletop Distance |
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401 | (1) |
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402 | (1) |
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Geometric Functions of Positioning |
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402 | (2) |
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404 | (3) |
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Effect on Sharpness of Recorded Detail |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (1) |
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406 | (1) |
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407 | (1) |
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408 | (3) |
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24 Analyzing the Radiographic Image |
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411 | (12) |
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Variables Affecting Exposure at the Image Receptor |
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411 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Subject Contrast at the Image Receptor |
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412 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Image Noise |
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412 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Sharpness of Recorded Detail |
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412 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Magnification of the Image |
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412 | (1) |
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Variables Affecting Shape Distortion |
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412 | (1) |
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413 | (2) |
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415 | (5) |
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Spatial Resolution: Spatial Frequency |
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416 | (1) |
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417 | (3) |
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420 | (1) |
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421 | (2) |
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25 Simplifying and Standardizing Technique |
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423 | (20) |
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Variable kVp vs. Fixed kVp Approaches |
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424 | (1) |
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Applying the Variable kVp Approach |
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425 | (1) |
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The Proportional Anatomy Approach |
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426 | (5) |
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431 | (4) |
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Developing a Chart from Scratch |
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435 | (4) |
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439 | (1) |
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440 | (3) |
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26 Using Automatic Exposure Controls (AEC) |
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443 | (20) |
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444 | (1) |
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444 | (2) |
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Pre-set Automatic Back-up mAs or Time |
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445 | (1) |
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The AEC Intensity (Density) Control |
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446 | (3) |
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449 | (3) |
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Detector Cell Configuration |
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452 | (2) |
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Checklist of AEC Precautions |
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454 | (1) |
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455 | (1) |
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Programmed Exposure Controls |
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455 | (2) |
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457 | (2) |
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459 | (4) |
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PART III DIGITAL RADIOGRAPHY |
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463 | (30) |
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The Development of Computers |
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465 | (3) |
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Computer Hardware Components |
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468 | (10) |
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The Central Processing Unit |
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470 | (3) |
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Secondary Storage Devices |
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473 | (4) |
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477 | (1) |
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478 | (6) |
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478 | (3) |
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481 | (3) |
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484 | (1) |
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485 | (1) |
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486 | (2) |
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488 | (2) |
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490 | (3) |
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28 Creating the Digital Image |
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493 | (28) |
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The Nature of Digital Images |
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493 | (5) |
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Displayed Field of View and Pixel Size |
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496 | (2) |
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Digitizing an Analog Image |
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498 | (4) |
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Role of X-Ray Attenuation in Forming the Digital Image |
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502 | (2) |
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Enhancement of Contrast Resolution |
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504 | (2) |
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506 | (1) |
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506 | (4) |
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506 | (4) |
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Digital Imaging and Communication Systems |
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510 | (3) |
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Workstations and Display Stations |
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512 | (1) |
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513 | (4) |
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Computed Radiography Readers |
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514 | (1) |
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515 | (1) |
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515 | (1) |
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516 | (1) |
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517 | (1) |
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518 | (3) |
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29 Digital Image Processing |
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521 | (44) |
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Preprocessing I Uniformity |
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522 | (2) |
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Flat-Field Uniformity Corrections |
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522 | (1) |
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522 | (1) |
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Electronic Response and Gain Offsets |
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523 | (1) |
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Variable Scintillator Thickness |
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523 | (1) |
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Light Guide Variations in CR |
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523 | (1) |
|
|
|
523 | (1) |
|
Preprocessing II Image Analysis |
|
|
524 | (6) |
|
Partitioned Pattern Recognition (Segmentation) |
|
|
524 | (1) |
|
Exposure Field Recognition and Histogram Analysis |
|
|
525 | (1) |
|
Constructing the Histogram |
|
|
525 | (2) |
|
Look-Up Tables and Types of Histogram Analysis |
|
|
527 | (3) |
|
Preprocessing III Normalization |
|
|
530 | (8) |
|
Initial Gradation Processing |
|
|
530 | (1) |
|
Rescaling of Brightness (Gray Level) |
|
|
531 | (1) |
|
|
|
532 | (1) |
|
Rescaling of Contrast (Gray Scale) |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Dynamic Range Compression (DRC) or Tissue Equalization |
|
|
533 | (1) |
|
Parameters for Gradient Processing |
|
|
534 | (4) |
|
Postprocessing I Detail Processing |
|
|
538 | (12) |
|
The Spatial Domain and the Frequency Domain |
|
|
538 | (2) |
|
Processing in the Spatial Domain |
|
|
540 | (1) |
|
Processing in the Frequency Domain |
|
|
541 | (3) |
|
|
|
544 | (2) |
|
|
|
546 | (1) |
|
|
|
546 | (3) |
|
Parameters for Frequency Processing |
|
|
549 | (1) |
|
Postprocessing II Noise Reduction |
|
|
550 | (1) |
|
Postprocessing III Preparation for Display |
|
|
551 | (3) |
|
Additional Gradation Processing |
|
|
551 | (1) |
|
|
|
551 | (2) |
|
Digital Processing Suites |
|
|
553 | (1) |
|
Postprocessing IV Operator Adjustments |
|
|
554 | (1) |
|
Postprocessing V Special Postprocessing |
|
|
555 | (3) |
|
|
|
555 | (3) |
|
Tomographic Artifact Suppression (TAS) |
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
|
558 | (1) |
|
|
|
559 | (2) |
|
|
|
561 | (4) |
|
30 Postprocessing Operations in Practice |
|
|
565 | (26) |
|
Navigating the Menu Screens |
|
|
565 | (2) |
|
|
|
567 | (2) |
|
|
|
569 | (7) |
|
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
|
|
571 | (1) |
|
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
Imaging Dynamics Corp. and iCRo |
|
|
572 | (1) |
|
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
|
|
573 | (1) |
|
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
Inversely Proportional Scales |
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
|
|
574 | (1) |
|
|
|
575 | (1) |
|
Acceptable Parameters for Exposure |
|
|
576 | (2) |
|
Exposure Indicator Errors |
|
|
578 | (1) |
|
Using Alternative Algorithms |
|
|
578 | (3) |
|
Examples of Alternative Algorithms |
|
|
580 | (1) |
|
|
|
581 | (2) |
|
Smoothing and Edge Enhancement |
|
|
583 | (1) |
|
Miscellaneous Processing Features |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
Image Reversal (Black Bone) |
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
|
|
584 | (1) |
|
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
Criteria for Digital Radiographic Image Quality |
|
|
585 | (1) |
|
|
|
586 | (2) |
|
|
|
588 | (3) |
|
31 Capturing the Digital Image: DR and CR |
|
|
591 | (24) |
|
Comparing CR and DR: Clinical Use |
|
|
591 | (1) |
|
Direct-Capture Digital Radiography (DR) |
|
|
592 | (4) |
|
To Coin a Term: The Dexel |
|
|
593 | (1) |
|
Direct Conversion Systems |
|
|
593 | (2) |
|
Indirect Conversion Systems |
|
|
595 | (1) |
|
Computed Radiography (CR) |
|
|
596 | (8) |
|
The CR Cassette and Phosphor Plate |
|
|
596 | (3) |
|
The CR Reader (Processor) |
|
|
599 | (3) |
|
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
Recent Developments in CR |
|
|
602 | (1) |
|
Background and Scatter Radiation |
|
|
602 | (2) |
|
Spatial Resolution of Digital Systems |
|
|
604 | (1) |
|
Efficiency of Image Receptors |
|
|
605 | (3) |
|
|
|
605 | (1) |
|
|
|
606 | (1) |
|
|
|
607 | (1) |
|
Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) |
|
|
608 | (1) |
|
|
|
608 | (2) |
|
Hardcopy Printer Artifacts |
|
|
610 | (1) |
|
|
|
610 | (2) |
|
|
|
612 | (3) |
|
32 Computed Radiography (CR) Applications |
|
|
615 | (10) |
|
|
|
615 | (3) |
|
|
|
615 | (1) |
|
|
|
615 | (2) |
|
|
|
617 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
|
|
618 | (1) |
|
Image Retention in Phosphor Plates |
|
|
619 | (1) |
|
|
|
620 | (2) |
|
Comparison of Image Contrast and Brightness Produced |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
Comparison of Image Mottle |
|
|
621 | (1) |
|
Comparison of Image Sharpness |
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
|
|
622 | (1) |
|
|
|
623 | (2) |
|
33 Applying Radiographic Technique to Digital Imaging |
|
|
625 | (16) |
|
|
|
625 | (1) |
|
Minimizing Patient Exposure |
|
|
625 | (3) |
|
Proportional Anatomy and Manual Technique Rules |
|
|
628 | (1) |
|
Exposure Latitude, Overexposure, and Public Exposure |
|
|
629 | (3) |
|
Automatic Exposure Controls (AECs) |
|
|
632 | (1) |
|
Sufficient Penetration and Signal-to-Noise Ratio |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
Effects of kVp Changes on the Image |
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
|
|
633 | (1) |
|
Effects of Scatter Radiation on Digital Images |
|
|
634 | (2) |
|
|
|
636 | (1) |
|
|
|
637 | (1) |
|
|
|
637 | (2) |
|
|
|
639 | (2) |
|
34 Display Systems and Electronic Images |
|
|
641 | (20) |
|
|
|
641 | (2) |
|
Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) and Sequels |
|
|
643 | (2) |
|
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
|
|
645 | (1) |
|
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) |
|
|
645 | (4) |
|
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
Horizontal Resolution (Bandpass) |
|
|
647 | (1) |
|
Contrast Resolution and Dynamic Range |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
Electronic Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio |
|
|
648 | (1) |
|
Reflective and Veiling Glare |
|
|
649 | (1) |
|
Liquid Crystal Diodes (LCDs) |
|
|
649 | (4) |
|
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
Advantages and Disadvantages of LCDs |
|
|
653 | (1) |
|
Nature of Pixels in Display Systems |
|
|
654 | (2) |
|
|
|
656 | (1) |
|
|
|
657 | (4) |
|
PART IV SPECIAL IMAGING METHODS |
|
|
|
35 Mobile Radiography and Tomography |
|
|
661 | (12) |
|
|
|
661 | (3) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
|
|
661 | (1) |
|
Distance Rule of Thumb for Mobile Units |
|
|
662 | (1) |
|
Alignment and Positioning Considerations |
|
|
663 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
664 | (6) |
|
|
|
664 | (1) |
|
|
|
665 | (3) |
|
Movement Patterns and False Images |
|
|
668 | (1) |
|
Focal Depth and Focal Intervals |
|
|
669 | (1) |
|
|
|
670 | (1) |
|
|
|
671 | (2) |
|
36 Fluoroscopy and Digital Fluoroscopy |
|
|
673 | (22) |
|
Development of Fluoroscopy |
|
|
673 | (2) |
|
The Image Intensifier Tube |
|
|
675 | (4) |
|
Input Phosphor and Photocathode |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
Electrostatic Focusing Lens |
|
|
676 | (1) |
|
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
|
|
677 | (1) |
|
Multifield Image Intensifiers and Magnification Modes |
|
|
678 | (1) |
|
Automatic Stabilization of Brightness |
|
|
679 | (2) |
|
|
|
679 | (1) |
|
|
|
680 | (1) |
|
|
|
681 | (1) |
|
Fluoroscopic Image Quality |
|
|
682 | (2) |
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
682 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
|
|
683 | (1) |
|
Processing the Image from the Intensifier Tube |
|
|
684 | (1) |
|
Mobile Image Intensification (C-Arm) |
|
|
684 | (2) |
|
Minimizing Patient and Operator Exposure |
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
Fluoroscopic Exposure Time |
|
|
686 | (1) |
|
|
|
687 | (4) |
|
Dynamic Flat-Panel Detectors |
|
|
688 | (1) |
|
Digital Subtraction Techniques |
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
689 | (1) |
|
|
|
690 | (1) |
|
|
|
691 | (1) |
|
|
|
692 | (3) |
|
|
|
695 | (24) |
|
Radiographic Equipment Testing |
|
|
695 | (9) |
|
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
|
|
695 | (1) |
|
|
|
696 | (1) |
|
|
|
697 | (1) |
|
|
|
697 | (2) |
|
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
|
|
699 | (1) |
|
Focal Spot Size and Condition |
|
|
700 | (1) |
|
Automatic Exposure Control (AEC) |
|
|
701 | (1) |
|
Tomographic Quality Control |
|
|
702 | (1) |
|
|
|
703 | (1) |
|
Monitoring of Digital Acquisition Systems |
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
Erasure Thoroughness and "Ghosting" |
|
|
704 | (1) |
|
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
|
|
705 | (1) |
|
Monitoring of Electronic Image Display Systems |
|
|
705 | (8) |
|
|
|
706 | (1) |
|
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
|
707 | (1) |
|
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
Luminance and Contrast Tests |
|
|
708 | (1) |
|
Ambient Lighting (Illuminance) and Reflectance Tests |
|
|
709 | (1) |
|
|
|
710 | (1) |
|
|
|
710 | (1) |
|
Dead and Stuck Pixels (LCD only) |
|
|
711 | (1) |
|
Viewing Angle Dependence (LCD only) |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Stability of Self-Calibrating LCDs |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
Geometric Distortion (CRT only) |
|
|
712 | (1) |
|
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
|
|
713 | (1) |
|
|
|
714 | (1) |
|
|
|
715 | (4) |
|
PART V RADIATION BIOLOGY AND PROTECTION |
|
|
|
38 Radiation Perspectives |
|
|
719 | (18) |
|
|
|
719 | (5) |
|
On the Radiographer's Job |
|
|
719 | (1) |
|
On Environmental Radiation |
|
|
720 | (2) |
|
Developing a Frame of Reference |
|
|
722 | (2) |
|
|
|
724 | (3) |
|
Natural Background Radiation |
|
|
725 | (1) |
|
Manmade Sources of Radiation |
|
|
726 | (1) |
|
|
|
727 | (2) |
|
|
|
729 | (4) |
|
|
|
733 | (1) |
|
|
|
733 | (2) |
|
|
|
735 | (2) |
|
39 Radiation Units and Measurement |
|
|
737 | (30) |
|
|
|
737 | (5) |
|
|
|
737 | (2) |
|
Dose versus Dose-Area Product (DAP) |
|
|
739 | (1) |
|
Conversions for Systeme International Units |
|
|
740 | (2) |
|
Dose Equivalent Limits (DELs) |
|
|
742 | (4) |
|
The Cumulative Lifetime Limit |
|
|
743 | (1) |
|
|
|
743 | (1) |
|
|
|
743 | (1) |
|
|
|
744 | (1) |
|
Genetically Significant Dose (GSD) |
|
|
745 | (1) |
|
Radiation Detection Instruments |
|
|
746 | (16) |
|
Characteristics of Radiation Detection Devices |
|
|
747 | (1) |
|
|
|
747 | (1) |
|
|
|
748 | (1) |
|
Resolving (Interrogation) Time |
|
|
749 | (1) |
|
|
|
750 | (1) |
|
Types of Radiation Detection Instruments |
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
|
|
751 | (1) |
|
Thermoluminescent Dosimeters (TLDs) |
|
|
751 | (2) |
|
|
|
753 | (1) |
|
|
|
754 | (1) |
|
|
|
754 | (2) |
|
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
|
|
756 | (1) |
|
|
|
757 | (1) |
|
Personal Radiation Monitors |
|
|
758 | (1) |
|
Voltage-Dependence of Electronic Detection Instruments |
|
|
759 | (3) |
|
|
|
762 | (2) |
|
|
|
764 | (3) |
|
40 Radiation Biology: Cellular Effects |
|
|
767 | (34) |
|
|
|
767 | (10) |
|
Tissues of the Human Body |
|
|
767 | (1) |
|
Cell Structure and Metabolism |
|
|
767 | (5) |
|
Transfer of Genetic Information |
|
|
772 | (1) |
|
|
|
772 | (3) |
|
|
|
775 | (1) |
|
|
|
776 | (1) |
|
Cellular Radiation Effects |
|
|
777 | (19) |
|
|
|
777 | (1) |
|
Law of Bergonie and Tribondeau |
|
|
777 | (2) |
|
Cellular Response to Radiation |
|
|
779 | (2) |
|
Theory of Cellular Damage |
|
|
781 | (3) |
|
|
|
784 | (2) |
|
Damage to the Cell Membrane |
|
|
786 | (1) |
|
Types of Damage to Chromosomes |
|
|
786 | (1) |
|
|
|
787 | (1) |
|
|
|
788 | (1) |
|
Mutations and Chromosome Aberrations |
|
|
788 | (1) |
|
Visible Chromosome Aberrations |
|
|
789 | (1) |
|
Linear Energy Transfer (LET) |
|
|
790 | (2) |
|
Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) |
|
|
792 | (1) |
|
|
|
793 | (1) |
|
|
|
793 | (1) |
|
|
|
794 | (1) |
|
Oxygen Enhancement Ratio (OER) |
|
|
795 | (1) |
|
Other Biological Factors Affecting Radiosensitivity |
|
|
795 | (1) |
|
Summary of Factors Affecting Radiosensitivity |
|
|
796 | (1) |
|
|
|
796 | (2) |
|
|
|
798 | (3) |
|
41 Radiation Biology: Organism Effects |
|
|
801 | (20) |
|
|
|
801 | (2) |
|
Stochastic Versus Deterministic Effects |
|
|
802 | (1) |
|
Early Effects of Radiation |
|
|
803 | (7) |
|
|
|
804 | (1) |
|
|
|
805 | (4) |
|
|
|
809 | (1) |
|
Late Effects of Radiation |
|
|
810 | (6) |
|
Teratogenic Effects of Radiation |
|
|
810 | (1) |
|
Period 1 0-2 Weeks Gestation |
|
|
810 | (1) |
|
Period 2 2-8 Weeks Gestation |
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
Period 3 8-12 Weeks Gestation |
|
|
811 | (1) |
|
Period 4 After 3 Months Gestation |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
Mutagenic Effects of Radiation |
|
|
812 | (1) |
|
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
Cataracts of the Eye Lens |
|
|
813 | (1) |
|
|
|
813 | (2) |
|
|
|
815 | (1) |
|
Mammograms and Breast Cancer |
|
|
815 | (1) |
|
|
|
816 | (2) |
|
|
|
818 | (3) |
|
42 Radiation Protection: Procedures and Policies |
|
|
821 | (34) |
|
Diagnostic Exposure Levels to Patients |
|
|
821 | (3) |
|
|
|
823 | (1) |
|
Optimizing Radiographic Technique |
|
|
824 | (3) |
|
|
|
824 | (1) |
|
Generators and Filtration |
|
|
824 | (1) |
|
|
|
825 | (1) |
|
|
|
825 | (1) |
|
Grids and Image Receptors |
|
|
825 | (1) |
|
Digital Processing Speed Class |
|
|
826 | (1) |
|
|
|
826 | (1) |
|
Radiographic Technique and AEC |
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
|
|
827 | (7) |
|
|
|
827 | (1) |
|
Policies for Patient Pregnancy |
|
|
828 | (1) |
|
|
|
829 | (1) |
|
|
|
830 | (3) |
|
|
|
833 | (1) |
|
|
|
834 | (10) |
|
|
|
834 | (1) |
|
The Cardinal Principles: Time, Distance and Shielding |
|
|
835 | (3) |
|
Personnel Shielding Requirements |
|
|
838 | (2) |
|
Equipment Shielding Requirements |
|
|
840 | (1) |
|
Personnel Protection Policies |
|
|
841 | (1) |
|
Policies for Technologist Pregnancy |
|
|
842 | (1) |
|
|
|
842 | (2) |
|
Structural Barrier Shielding |
|
|
844 | (4) |
|
Factors for Adequacy of Barriers |
|
|
845 | (2) |
|
|
|
847 | (1) |
|
|
|
847 | (1) |
|
Advisory and Regulatory Agencies |
|
|
848 | (1) |
|
|
|
849 | (1) |
|
|
|
850 | (2) |
|
|
|
852 | (3) |
Appendix #1 Answers to
Chapter Exercises |
|
855 | (4) |
| Appendix #2 Exercises 25-2, 25-3, and 25-4 (Constructing Technique Charts) |
|
859 | (4) |
| Index |
|
863 | |
