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Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition 2nd edition [Pehme köide]

(University of Toledo, Ohio, USA), (Warsaw University of Technology, Poland)
  • Formaat: Paperback / softback, 472 pages, kõrgus x laius: 254x178 mm, kaal: 870 g, 43 Tables, black and white; 372 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 31-Mar-2017
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press
  • ISBN-10: 1138075248
  • ISBN-13: 9781138075245
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Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition 2nd editionSuurem pilt
  • Formaat: Paperback / softback, 472 pages, kõrgus x laius: 254x178 mm, kaal: 870 g, 43 Tables, black and white; 372 Illustrations, black and white
  • Ilmumisaeg: 31-Mar-2017
  • Kirjastus: CRC Press
  • ISBN-10: 1138075248
  • ISBN-13: 9781138075245
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Drawing on state-of-the-art research results, Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition systematically presents fundamental aspects of important processes in resistance welding and discusses their implications on real-world welding applications. This updated edition describes progress made in resistance welding research and practice since the publication of the first edition.

New to the Second Edition:

  • Significant addition of the metallurgical aspects of materials involved in resistance welding, such as steels, aluminum and magnesium alloys, zinc, and copper
  • Electric current waveforms commonly used in resistance welding, including single-phase AC, single-phase DC, three-phase DC, and MFDC
  • Magnesium welding in terms of cracking and expulsion
  • The effect of individual welding parameters
  • 2-D and 3-D lobe diagrams
  • New materials for the ultrasonic evaluation of welds, including A-scan, B-scan, and in-line A-scan

The book begins with chapters on the metallurgical processes in resistance spot welding, the basics of welding schedule selection, and cracking in the nugget and heat-affected zone of alloys. The next several chapters discuss commonly conducted mechanical tests, the monitoring and control of a welding process, and the destructive and nondestructive evaluation of weld quality. The authors then analyze the mechanisms of expulsion—a process largely responsible for defect formation and other unwanted features—and explore an often overlooked topic in resistance welding-related research: the influence of mechanical aspects of welding machines. The final chapters explain how to numerically simulate a resistance welding process and apply statistical design and analysis approaches to welding research.

To obtain a broad understanding of this area, readers previously had to scour large quantities of research on resistance welding and essential related subjects, such as statistical analysis. This book collects the necessary information in one source for students, researchers, and practitioners in the sheet metal industry. It thoroughly reviews state-of-the-art results in resistance welding research and gives you a solid foundation for solving practical problems in a scientific and systematic manner.

Arvustused

"The second edition has made a great book even better. It remains a significant, practical aid to anyone interested in a better understanding of resistance welding science and it should be considered for their library." Welding Journal, February 2013

Praise for the First Edition:"The chapters are easy to comprehend, and the topics are presented in a 'big picture' basis. General concepts are the highlight. There are 20 to 40 references at the end of each chapter, and most of the chapters begin with a good literature, which then allows this book to be used as an introduction to welding at the graduate level in an engineering discipline." JOM Online, March 2006

"[ this book] will almost certainly find its way into the library of anyone who needs or wants to understand the physics behind resistance spot welding [ It offers] a detailed analysis of the physics involved in the resistance welding process that is, for the most part, remarkably easy to understand. They [ the authors] have also reinforced their methodical explanations with nearly 300 original graphics For both the student and process user, there is a lot of basic information presented in an easy-to-read fashion For theoretical studies or laboratory work, there is a bounty of information beyond the excellent compilation of reference materials. It might be too soon to proclaim this work as historically significant, but it seems a virtual certainty that it will be viewed as such. In any case, the authors have certainly done a great service to the resistance welding industry." David Beneteau, CenterLine Ltd., Windsor, Ontario, Canada "The second edition has made a great book even better. It remains a significant, practical aid to anyone interested in a better understanding of resistance welding science and it should be considered for their library." Welding Journal, February 2013

Praise for the First Edition:"The chapters are easy to comprehend, and the topics are presented in a 'big picture' basis. General concepts are the highlight. There are 20 to 40 references at the end of each chapter, and most of the chapters begin with a good literature, which then allows this book to be used as an introduction to welding at the graduate level in an engineering discipline." JOM Online, March 2006

"[ this book] will almost certainly find its way into the library of anyone who needs or wants to understand the physics behind resistance spot welding [ It offers] a detailed analysis of the physics involved in the resistance welding process that is, for the most part, remarkably easy to understand. They [ the authors] have also reinforced their methodical explanations with nearly 300 original graphics For both the student and process user, there is a lot of basic information presented in an easy-to-read fashion For theoretical studies or laboratory work, there is a bounty of information beyond the excellent compilation of reference materials. It might be too soon to proclaim this work as historically significant, but it seems a virtual certainty that it will be viewed as such. In any case, the authors have certainly done a great service to the resistance welding industry." David Beneteau, CenterLine Ltd., Windsor, Ontario, Canada

Preface xv
Authors xix
1 Welding Metallurgy
1(52)
1.1 Solidification in Resistance Spot Welding
1(3)
1.2 Metallurgical Characteristics of Metals
4(30)
1.2.1 Steels
5(1)
1.2.1.1 Solid Transformations in Steels
5(3)
1.2.1.2 Transformations in HAZ of a Steel Weld
8(4)
1.2.1.3 Effect of Carbon Content
12(3)
1.2.2 Aluminum Alloys
15(1)
1.2.2.1 Classifications and Properties
16(2)
1.2.2.2 Resistance Welding Aluminum Alloys
18(3)
1.2.3 Magnesium Alloys
21(1)
1.2.3.1 Properties and Applications of Mg Alloys
21(1)
1.2.3.2 Welding Mg Alloys
22(1)
1.2.3.3 Resistance Welding Mg Alloys
23(4)
1.2.4 Copper Alloys
27(1)
1.2.4.1 Strengthening of Cu Alloys
28(1)
1.2.4.2 Classifications of Electrodes
29(1)
1.2.4.3 Copper Electrode and Coating/Sheet Interaction
30(4)
1.3 Embrittlement of Weldment
34(11)
1.3.1 Liquid Metal Embrittlement
36(4)
1.3.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement
40(2)
1.3.3 Intermetallic-Compound Embrittlement
42(3)
1.4 Cracking
45(3)
1.4.1 Solidification Cracking
45(2)
1.4.2 Liquation Cracking
47(1)
1.4.3 Corrosion Cracking
47(1)
References
48(5)
2 Electrothermal Processes of Welding
53(48)
2.1 Electrical Characteristics of Resistance Welding
53(7)
2.1.1 Bulk Resistance
54(1)
2.1.2 Contact Resistance
55(2)
2.1.3 Total Resistance
57(2)
2.1.4 Shunting
59(1)
2.2 Thermal Characteristics of Resistance Welding
60(2)
2.3 Electrode Life
62(10)
2.3.1 Welding Galvanized Steels
62(2)
2.3.2 Welding Aluminum Alloys
64(1)
2.3.2.1 Experiment
65(1)
2.3.2.2 Rapid Electrode Life Determination
65(1)
2.3.2.3 Electrode Life Test
66(4)
2.3.2.4 Relation between 60-Weld Electrodes and Electrode Life
70(2)
2.4 Heat Balance
72(10)
2.4.1 Law of Thermal Similarity
72(1)
2.4.2 Heat Balance
73(2)
2.4.3 Modified Heat Balance Theory
75(5)
2.4.4 Experimental Verification
80(2)
2.5 Electric Current Waveform
82(15)
2.5.1 Single-Phase AC
84(3)
2.5.1.1 Constant Current
87(1)
2.5.1.2 Half-Sine Current Profile
87(2)
2.5.1.3 Sinusoidal Current Profile
89(1)
2.5.1.4 Experiments
90(2)
2.5.2 Single-Phase DC
92(1)
2.5.3 Three-Phase DC
93(1)
2.5.4 Medium-Frequency DC
94(3)
References
97(4)
3 Weld Discontinuities
101(36)
3.1 Classification of Discontinuities
101(10)
3.1.1 External Discontinuities
101(6)
3.1.2 Internal Discontinuities
107(4)
3.2 Void Formation in Weld Nuggets
111(5)
3.2.1 Gas Bubbles
111(4)
3.2.2 Effect of Volume Shrinkage
115(1)
3.3 Cracking in Welding AA6111 Alloys
116(3)
3.4 Cracking in Welding AA5754 Alloys
119(16)
3.4.1 Liquation Cracking in Aluminum Alloys
120(2)
3.4.2 Mechanisms of Cracking
122(1)
3.4.2.1 Metallurgical Effect
123(2)
3.4.2.2 Thermomechanical Effect
125(1)
3.4.2.3 Thermal Stress during Heating
126(1)
3.4.2.4 Thermal Stress during Cooling
127(3)
3.4.2.5 Influence of Other Factors
130(1)
3.4.3 Cracking Suppression
130(1)
3.4.3.1 Effect of Specimen Width and Electrode Geometry
131(1)
3.4.3.2 Effect of Welding Sequence
131(1)
3.4.3.3 Effect of Washer Clamping
132(1)
3.4.3.4 Effect of Current Shunting
133(2)
References
135(2)
4 Mechanical Testing
137(36)
4.1 Introduction
137(2)
4.2 Shop Floor Practices
139(2)
4.2.1 Chisel Test
139(1)
4.2.2 Peel (Roller) Test
140(1)
4.2.3 Bend Test
140(1)
4.3 Instrumented Tests
141(29)
4.3.1 Static Tests
142(1)
4.3.1.1 Tension Test
142(2)
4.3.1.2 Tension--Shear Test
144(8)
4.3.1.3 Combined Tension and Shear Test
152(1)
4.3.2 Dynamic Tests
153(1)
4.3.2.1 Fatigue Test
154(6)
4.3.2.2 Impact Test
160(4)
4.3.2.3 A New Impact Tester
164(5)
4.3.3 Torsion Test
169(1)
4.3.3.1 Twisting
169(1)
4.3.3.2 Torsional Shear Test
169(1)
References
170(3)
5 Resistance Welding Process Monitoring and Control
173(46)
5.1 Introduction
173(1)
5.2 Data Acquisition
174(2)
5.3 Process Monitoring
176(20)
5.3.1 Signals Commonly Monitored during Welding
176(3)
5.3.1.1 Electric Voltage
179(1)
5.3.1.2 Electric Current
179(1)
5.3.1.3 Dynamic Resistance
179(2)
5.3.1.4 Electrode Displacement
181(2)
5.3.1.5 Electrode Force
183(2)
5.3.1.6 Acoustic Emission
185(1)
5.3.1.7 Pneumatic Pressure Fluctuation
186(1)
5.3.2 Adaptive Noise Cancellation
187(3)
5.3.3 Relationship between Monitored Signals and Welding Processes
190(1)
5.3.3.1 Effect of Process Conditions
190(2)
5.3.3.2 Fault Identification
192(2)
5.3.3.3 Expulsion Detection
194(2)
5.4 Process Control
196(20)
5.4.1 Lobe Diagrams
197(1)
5.4.1.1 Effect of Process Parameters and Weld Setup Variables
197(2)
5.4.1.2 Probabilistic Expulsion Boundaries in Lobe Diagrams
199(1)
5.4.1.3 Effect of Electrode Force
200(2)
5.4.1.4 3-D Lobe Diagrams
202(1)
5.4.2 Constant-Power Density
203(1)
5.4.2.1 Hypothesis
204(1)
5.4.2.2 Algorithm
204(1)
5.4.2.3 Algorithm Implementation
205(1)
5.4.2.4 Gain Scheduling
206(1)
5.4.2.5 Experimental Results
207(1)
5.4.3 Artificial Neural Network Modeling
208(3)
5.4.3.1 A Case Study of Using ANN for RSW Quality Control
211(3)
5.4.4 Current Stepping
214(2)
References
216(3)
6 Weld Quality and Inspection
219(38)
6.1 Weld Quality
219(13)
6.1.1 Weld Attributes
219(1)
6.1.1.1 Geometric Attributes
219(1)
6.1.1.2 Weld Performance
220(1)
6.1.1.3 Process Characteristics
221(1)
6.1.2 Weld Quality Requirements
221(3)
6.1.3 Relations between Weld Attributes and Strength
224(8)
6.2 Destructive Evaluation
232(3)
6.2.1 Peel Test
233(1)
6.2.2 Chisel Test
233(1)
6.2.3 Metallographic Test
233(2)
6.3 Nondestructive Evaluation
235(20)
6.3.1 Ultrasonic A-Scan
236(2)
6.3.1.1 A Case Study on R&R of an Ultrasonic A-Scanner
238(6)
6.3.2 Ultrasonic B-Scan
244(2)
6.3.3 Examining Various Welds Using a B-Scan System
246(2)
6.3.4 Identification of Cold Welds
248(5)
6.3.5 Relationship between Weld Attributes and Weld Strength
253(2)
References
255(2)
7 Expulsion in Resistance Spot Welding
257(50)
7.1 Influence of Expulsion on Spot Weld Quality
257(5)
7.2 Expulsion Process and Detection
262(1)
7.3 Expulsion Prediction and Prevention
263(25)
7.3.1 Geometry Comparison Model
264(1)
7.3.2 Force Balance Model
265(1)
7.3.2.1 The Principle
265(1)
7.3.2.2 Evaluation of Effective Electrode Force
266(3)
7.3.2.3 Pressures and Forces in Liquid Nugget
269(7)
7.3.3 Expulsion through Molten Liquid Network in HAZ
276(1)
7.3.3.1 Expulsion Characteristics of AZ91D
277(3)
7.3.3.2 Effect of Electrode Force
280(1)
7.3.3.3 Expulsion through a Network of Liquid Grain Boundaries
281(1)
7.3.4 Statistical Modeling
282(2)
7.3.4.1 Modeling Procedure
284(2)
7.3.4.2 Statistical Analysis
286(2)
7.3.5 Summary
288(1)
7.4 Examples
288(16)
7.4.1 Application of Force Balance Model
289(1)
7.4.1.1 Calculation of Pressures and Forces
289(3)
7.4.1.2 Experimental Verification
292(2)
7.4.1.3 Perspective Applications
294(1)
7.4.2 Examples of the Use of Statistical Model
295(1)
7.4.2.1 Experiments
295(3)
7.4.2.2 Discussion
298(6)
References
304(3)
8 Influence of Mechanical Characteristics of Welding Machines
307(40)
8.1 Introduction
307(1)
8.2 Mechanical Characteristics of Typical Spot Welders
308(2)
8.3 Influence of Machine Stiffness
310(10)
8.3.1 Effect on Electrode Force
311(1)
8.3.2 Effect on Electrode Displacement
311(2)
8.3.3 Effect on Electrode Touching Behavior
313(1)
8.3.4 Effect on Weld Formation
313(1)
8.3.4.1 Expulsion
313(1)
8.3.5 Effect on Weld Strength
314(1)
8.3.6 Effect on Electrode Alignment
315(1)
8.3.7 Stiffness and Damping Ratio Estimation
315(5)
8.4 Influence of Friction
320(4)
8.4.1 Effect on Electrode Force
321(1)
8.4.2 Effect on Electrode Displacement
321(1)
8.4.3 Effect on Microstructure
322(1)
8.4.4 Effect on Tensile-Shear Strength
322(2)
8.5 Influence of Moving Mass
324(4)
8.5.1 A Dynamic Force Analysis
324(3)
8.5.2 Effect on Weld Quality
327(1)
8.6 Follow-Up in a Welding Cycle
328(7)
8.6.1 Thermal Expansion
328(1)
8.6.2 Effect of a Pneumatic Cylinder
329(1)
8.6.2.1 Theoretical Analysis
330(3)
8.6.2.2 Experiment Results
333(2)
8.7 Squeeze Time and Hold Time Measurement
335(3)
8.8 Other Factors
338(6)
8.8.1 Electrode Alignment and Workpiece Stack-Up
338(3)
8.8.2 Electrode Force
341(1)
8.8.3 Materials
342(2)
References
344(3)
9 Numerical Simulation in Resistance Spot Welding
347(32)
9.1 Introduction
347(5)
9.1.1 Comparison between Finite Difference and Finite Element Methods
348(1)
9.1.1.1 Discretization
348(1)
9.1.1.2 Geometry
348(1)
9.1.1.3 Formulation
349(1)
9.1.1.4 Accuracy and Others
350(1)
9.1.2 Methods of RSW Process Simulation
350(2)
9.2 Coupled Electrical-Thermal-Mechanical Analysis
352(6)
9.2.1 A General (Three-Dimensional) Finite Element Model
352(1)
9.2.2 Formulation of Electrical Process
352(1)
9.2.3 Formulation of Heat Transfer Process
353(1)
9.2.4 Boundary Conditions
353(1)
9.2.5 Formulation of Thermomechanical Analysis
354(1)
9.2.6 Simulation of Melting and Solidification
354(1)
9.2.7 Finite Element Formulation
355(1)
9.2.8 Two-Dimensional Finite Element Modeling
356(1)
9.2.8.1 Formulation for Electrical Analysis
356(1)
9.2.8.2 Formulation for Thermal Analysis
357(1)
9.2.8.3 Finite Element Formulation
357(1)
9.2.9 Axisymmetric Problems
358(1)
9.3 Simulation of Contact Properties and Contact Area
358(4)
9.4 Simulation of Other Factors
362(1)
9.4.1 Effect of Zinc Coating
362(1)
9.4.2 Effect of Electric Current Profile
362(1)
9.5 Modeling of Microstructure Evolution
363(6)
9.5.1 Effect of Cooling Rate
364(1)
9.5.2 Microstructure Evolution in HAZ
364(1)
9.5.3 Simulation of Microstructure of a Nugget
365(3)
9.5.4 An Example of Simulating Microstructure Evolution in a Spot Weldment
368(1)
9.6 Examples of Numerical Simulation of RSW Processes
369(7)
9.6.1 Case Study I: Effect of Electrode Face Geometry
369(2)
9.6.2 Case Study II: Differences between Using Coupled and Uncoupled Algorithms
371(1)
9.6.3 Case Study III: Effect of Electrode Axial Misalignment
372(1)
9.6.4 Case Study IV: Effect of Angular Misalignment of Domed Electrodes
373(3)
References
376(3)
10 Statistical Design, Analysis, and Inference in Resistance Welding Research
379(48)
10.1 Introduction
379(1)
10.2 Basic Concepts and Procedures
380(3)
10.2.1 Data Collection
380(1)
10.2.2 Statistical Modeling and Data Analysis
381(1)
10.2.3 Inference and Decision Making
381(2)
10.3 Experiment with Continuous Response
383(24)
10.3.1 Statistical Design
383(1)
10.3.1.1 Factorial Designs
383(1)
10.3.1.2 Orthogonal Arrays
383(1)
10.3.1.3 Second-Order Designs
384(1)
10.3.1.4 Robust Parameter Designs
384(1)
10.3.1.5 Nested Designs
384(1)
10.3.1.6 Use of Blocks
385(1)
10.3.2 Analysis and Modeling
386(1)
10.3.2.1 Use of Graphs
386(1)
10.3.2.2 Multiple Regression Model
387(2)
10.3.2.3 Residual Analysis
389(1)
10.3.2.4 Location--Dispersion Modeling for Variance Reduction
389(1)
10.3.3 Inference and Decision Making
390(1)
10.3.3.1 Factor Screening
390(1)
10.3.3.2 Treatment Comparison
390(3)
10.3.3.3 Combination of Experiments
393(2)
10.3.3.4 Response Surface Exploration
395(2)
10.3.3.5 Variance Reduction
397(1)
10.3.4 Two-Stage Sliding-Level Experiments
398(1)
10.3.4.1 Experiment Design
399(1)
10.3.4.2 Analysis and Modeling
400(2)
10.3.4.3 Analysis of Current Range
402(3)
10.3.4.4 Analysis of Button Size
405(1)
10.3.4.5 Inference and Decision Making
405(2)
10.4 Experiments with Categorical Responses
407(9)
10.4.1 Experiment Design
408(1)
10.4.2 Analysis and Modeling
408(1)
10.4.3 Inference and Decision Making
409(1)
10.4.3.1 Statistical Analysis
409(1)
10.4.3.2 Coding System and Transformations
410(2)
10.4.3.3 Use of Pseudo-Data
412(1)
10.4.3.4 Analysis and Results
413(3)
10.4.3.5 Inference and Decision Making
416(1)
10.5 Computer Simulation Experiments
416(9)
10.5.1 Experiment Design
417(1)
10.5.2 Analysis and Modeling
417(1)
10.5.2.1 Planning of Numerical Experiments
418(3)
10.5.2.2 Results and Inference
421(4)
10.6 Summary
425(1)
References
425(2)
Index 427
Dr. Hongyan Zhang is an associate professor in the Department of Mechanical, Industrial, and Manufacturing Engineering at the University of Toledo. He has published over 70 peer-reviewed journal and conference papers and contributed to a number of American Welding Society Standards. His research interests include materials, forming, welding, and mechanical fastening; manufacturing process monitoring and control; failure analysis; structural optimization; and hybrid propulsion systems.

Dr. Jacek Senkara is a professor of the Production Engineering Faculty at Warsaw University of Technology. He has published roughly 100 scientific and technical papers in professional journals and conference proceedings and served as a principal investigator for a number of government, industry, and university-supported research projects. His research interests include materials aspects of welding and welding-related processes, along with the surface modification of materials.